Livable Cities - London AMPS | City, University of London Page 178 been bound as a book. We have the experience of reading a physical book while being waterproof and durable. Despite this durability, this book can still be recycled and repurposed. The scope of life with something a small as a book creates a large impact on the ecosystem that we leach off of. The practice of implementing the scope and life-cycle of materials throughout the design phases is best when viewed early in the phases. When extending the life-cycle of materials is the goal, environment and cost go hand in hand. By utilizing this ideal, firms typically look at the trends of consumers. Life- cycle Cost Management (LCCM) has a goal to “save money by making purchases, operating, and maintenance decisions based on the full life-cycle cost…”11 The finances evaluated typically include the product or materials “acquisition, use, and ultimate disposal, including costs of storage, transportation, facilities, energy, labor, training, and record keeping.”12 These are all different aspects that may vary the life-cycle of a product or material and how it is included in the design. This can be seen in figure 01. For example, the sourcing of wood typically requires the use of proper foresting while not depleting the natural resources in a specific area. By selective removal of the natural resource, there is opportunity to continue the growth and ensure that there are enough resources for future use. The use of wood treatment also dictates the life-cycle of the material. By using harmful varnishes, there is a smaller opportunity to reuse the product. The craft of the product determines the life-cycle of said material. Reiser and Nanako state that: “Craft, therefore, does compromise a natural response to material necessity, be it the organic moments in mechanized process, the rapid prototyping of mass-produced components that takes place in an auto production, or the customized, one-off at Lockheed’ SkunkWorks program. Rejection of craft, therefore, is reactionary and cannot be justified by an ideological platform that purports to reinvent production without recognizing the distribution of craft practices.”13 The mass production of materials for conveniences and high demand diminishes the natural form of the material. The loss of individuality was lost during the mass production of products and materials, creating lower quality goods and the ease of disposal of single use items. Historical Background: Mass Production and the Production Industry The impact of the construction industry on the environment is drastically different from that of the consumer population based on demand and scale of projects. The demand for these materials and goods creates a strain on natural resources as well as long-term effects. This trend has been established for centuries from the First Industrial Revolution to the Fourth. The First Industrial Revolution started in the 1700s as a transition from a handmade production process to a mechanical based production. This new process was implemented for the speed of production, the accuracy of assembly, and the positive economic impact. This surge of new production processes and machinery increased the use of hazardous and non-reusable materials. With the continuation of the Second and Third Industrial Revolutions, the quality of the materials and products were not considered for longevity and durability, but for profit and ease of production. Due to the increase in demand of products, the United States, for example, created a greater focus on solving problems for production after development. This leads to “low-quality products, high product development costs, and innumerable delays getting a product out to market.”14 By analyzing these mistakes and the effects it has not only had on the economic system but also the ecosystem, we have evolved the Fourth Industrial Revolution to resolve some of these mistakes. According to Neri Oxman, a designer and professor at MIT in Massachusetts, “The Fourth Industrial Revolution heralds a series of social, political, cultural, and economic upheavals that will unfold over the 21st century. Building on the widespread availability of digital technologies that were the result of the Third Industrial Revolution, or Digital Revolution, The Fourth Industrial Revolution will be driven largely by the convergence of digital, biological, and physical innovations.”15
