©2023 International Society of Arboriculture Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 49(3): May 2023 109 for their relevance to this analysis (see methods): doctor, nurse, public health worker, pharmacist, law- yer, civil engineer, landscape architect, urban planner, social worker, arborist, and forester. No profession is .er.ect or sin.ul.rl. e.em.li.es . .r.ctic.l ide.l type; all have strengths and weaknesses. Below we delineate 8 practical ideals of a modern profession .le.ned .rom t.e liter.ture. .or e.c. ide.l. .e .rst explain the ideal and then present examples from other professions striving toward improvement in that ideal. The ideals and their supporting literature are summa- rized in Table 1. Essential Service to Society ..e .ound.tion.l .usti.c.tion .or .n. .ro.ession is to provide an essential service to society that only a spe- ci.c .rou. o. e..erts .ossessin. s.eci.lized .no.l- edge can perform (Freidson 1994; Bayles 2003). Professions gain autonomy and prestige from societal recognition and, in exchange, perform essential ser- vices to society through their professional actions (Gardner and Shulman 2005; Fitzgerald 2020). Med- ical doctors are the most common example, because providing care for human health is essential to improv- ing quality of life, while the specialized knowledge is incre.sin.l. com.le. .nd .eld onl. .. t..t s.eci.c group of experts (Bayles 1986; Holden et al. 2015). Case Study Nelson et al. (2021) identify 5 distinct roles pharma- cists have taken on over the last 100 years as technol- ogy and society have changed. Today, pharmacists provide an essential service to society by playing a critical role in health care as the specialists who pre- vent, identify, and manage medication therapy prob- lems and their root causes. Although the pharmacist’s position in society makes sense to us today, it is just as easy to imagine “druggists” having lost relevancy around WWII, when their primary function of hand- mixing medication formulas was mostly made obso- lete by mass-produced medications, and the balance of their duties could have been absorbed by doctors. Instead, that is just one example of a period in history where pharmacists embraced technology and suc- cessfully pivoted. Pharmacists are currently engaged in yet another period of adjustment and are undergoing extensive sel..reflection o. t.eir .ro.ession .nd role in societ. (Gregory and Austin 2019; Edwards 2020; Kellar et al. 2020; Nelson et al. 2021; Santarossa et al. 2021). .e con.ne our .n.l.sis to t.e .nited .t.tes .nd ..n- ada for 2 reasons: (1) a gap analysis of a profession re.uires . cle.rl. de.ned sco.e. .nd (.) t.e .nited .t.tes .nd ..n.d. .re .ell re.resented in t.e sur.e. from which we draw evidence to support our PIT anal- ysis for urban forestry. Our objectives are to: (1) create a PIT for a modern profession that is suitable for urban forest profession- als; and (2) identify gaps between this PIT and the existing professional support mechanisms for and reported experiences of urban forest professionals in t.e .nited .t.tes .nd ..n.d.. LITERATURE REVIEW: PRACTICAL IDEAL TYPE FOR A MODERN PROFESSION Numerous authors have examined professions in pur- suit o. . co.erent de.nition .or . .ro.ession. ...les (2003) synthesized many schools of thought on the topic, concluding that a profession requires extensive tr.inin. o. . si.ni.c.ntl. intellectu.l n.ture .nd .ro- vides an essential service to society. Evashwick et al. (2013) concluded that public health clearly meets the de.nition o. . .ro.ession ..ter meetin. . criteri.. (.) . distinct body of knowledge; (2) an educational cre- dential offered by schools and programs accredited by a specialized accrediting body; (3) career paths that include autonomous practice; and (4) a separate cre- dential, signaling the ability to self-regulate. Similarly, .illetts .nd .l.r.e (.0..) .ound t..t nursin. ..s evolved into a profession because it has a body of knowledge, professional recognition, societal recog- nition, a code of ethics, and a community of profession- als monitoring the conduct of members. Kirkpatrick et .l. (.0.0c) noted t..t t.e de.nition o. . .ro.ession is not static, but typically includes providing a ser- vice, drawing from an academic body of knowledge, forming an advocacy group, enforcing a code of eth- ics, and practicing self-regulation. Freidson (1994), having spent decades studying professionalism and professions, highlighted that professions provide an essential service based on a body of knowledge con- veyed via higher education. However, he also believed e.er. rese.rc.er must de.ne ..ro.ession. .or t.em- sel.es. .ec.use t.ere is no sin.le .er.ect de.nition. .ur de.nition o. . modern .ro.ession is .resented here as a framework of practical ideals assembled by broadly examining the literature on professions and also analyzing 11 well-established professions selected
May 2023
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