132 tions in a tree’s crown, due to branch architec- ture (Sellier and Fourcaud 2009), may be very significant in the dynamic response of trees. Further work is needed to fully understand the dynamic role of branches, particularly for recom- mendations for the pruning of open-grown trees. Acknowledgments. Thanks to the ISA for sponsoring the Tree Bio- mechanics Week and to Davey Tree Expert Company for provid- ing the tree at the Shalersville site and resources to help with the experimental work. Assistance from Toni Serra is also gratefully acknowledged. LITERATURE CITED Baker, C.J. 1997. Measurements of the natural frequencies of trees. Journal of Experimental Botany 48:1125–1132. Baker, C.J., and H.J. Bell. 1992. Aerodynamics of urban trees. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 44:2655–2666. Chopra, A.K. 1995. Dynamics of Structures. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, U.S. Ciſtci, C., S. Brena, B. Kane, and S. Arwade. 2013. 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Masters, and J.C. Grabosky. 2008a. Pruning Affects Tree Movement in Hurricane Force Wind. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 34:20–28. Gilman, E.F., J.C Grabosky, S. Jones, and C. Harchick. 2008b. Effects of Pruning Dose and Type on Trunk Movement in Trop- ical Storm Winds. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 34:13–19. Hassinen, A., M. Lemettinen, H. Peltola, S. Kellomaki, and B. Gar- diner. 1998. A prism-based system for monitoring the swaying of trees under wind loading. Journal of Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 90:187–194. James, K.R. 2010. A Dynamic Structural Analysis of Trees Subject to Wind Loading. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Melbourne. James, K.R., and B. Kane. 2008. Precision digital instruments to measure dynamic wind loads on trees during storms. Journal of Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 148:1055–1061. James, K.R., N. Haritos, and P.K. Ades. 2006. Mechanical stability of trees under dynamic loads. American Journal of Botany 93(10):1361–1369. ©2014 International Society of Arboriculture James: A Study of Branch Dynamics on an Open-Grown Tree Jonsson, M.J., A. Foetzki, M. Kalberer, T. Lundstrom, W. Ammann, and V. Stockli. 2007. Natural frequencies and damping ratios of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst] growing on subalpine forested slopes. Trees 21:541–548. Kane, B., and K.R. James. 2011. Dynamic properties of open-grown deciduous trees. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 41:321–330. Kane, B., Y. Modarres-Sadeghi, K.R. James, and M. Reiland. 2014. Effects of crown structure on the sway characteristics of large decurrent trees. Trees 28:151–159. Mayhead, G.J. 1973. Sway periods of forest trees. Scottish Forestry 27:19–23. Mayhead, G.J., B.H. Gardiner, and D.W. Durrant. 1975. A report on the physical properties of conifers in relation to plantation stability. Forest Commission Research and Development Divi- sion, Roslin, Midlothian, UK. Miller, L.A. 2005. Structural dynamics and resonance in plants with nonlinear stiffness. Journal of Theoretical Biology 234:511–24. Milne, R. 1991. Dynamics of swaying of Picea sitchensis. Tree- Physiology 9:383–399. Moore, J.R., and D.A. Maguire. 2004. Natural sway frequencies and damping ratios of trees: Concepts, review, and synthesis of pre- vious studies. Trees 18:195–203. Moore, J.R., and D.A. Maguire. 2005. Natural sway frequencies and damping ratios of trees: Influence of crown structure. Trees 19:363–373. Rodriguez, M., E. de Langre, and B. Moulia. 2008. A scaling law for the effects of architecture and allometry on tree vibration modes suggests a biological tuning to modal compartmentaliza- tion. American Journal of Botany 95:1523–37. Rodriguez, M., S. Ploquin, B. Moulia, and E. de Langre. 2012. The multimodal dynamics of a walnut tree: Experiments and models. Journal of Applied Mechanics 79:4505–4509. Roodbaraky, H.J., C.J. Baker, A.R. Dawson, and C.J. Wright. 1994. Experimental Observations of the Aerodynamic Characteristics of Urban Trees. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 52:171–184. Sellier, D., and T. Fourcaud. 2009. Crown structure and wood properties: Influence on tree sway and response to high winds. American Journal of Botany 96:885–896. Sellier, D., T. Fourcaud, and P. Lac. 2008. A finite element model for investigating effects of aerial architecture on tree oscillations. Tree Physiology 26:799–806. Smiley, T., and B. Kane. 2006. Effects of pruning type on wind load- ing. Journal of Arboriculture 32:33–39. Spatz, H.-C., F. Bruchert, and J. Pfisterer. 2007. Multiple resonance damping or how trees escape dangerously large oscillations. American Journal of Botany 94:1603–1611. Spatz, H-C., and B. Thekes. 2013. Oscillation damping in trees. Plant Science 207:66–71. Theckes, B., E. de Langre, and X. Boutillon. 2011. Damping by branching: A bioinspiration from trees. Bioinspiration and Bio- mimetics 6:1–11. Kenneth R James, Ph.D. Research Engineer Enspec Pty Ltd. Unit 2, 13 Viewtech Place Rowville, VIC 3178, Australia
[email protected]
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