132 Straka et al.: Participation in Urban and Community Forestry Programs foresters, who are available to provide insight on commu- nity projects. Financial assistance refers to the various grants available for each state that provide for projects such as tree planting, educational workshops, and community tree inventories. Program information is given to the public through brochures, Web sites, and meetings. Technical and financial assistance are most commonly available through the state forestry commission or depart- ment of natural resources agencies, which have access to funding for these types of projects. This assistance can come in one of four forms: technical assistance, education and training, resource development, and public awareness (Wisconsin DNR 2004). Financial assistance can range anywhere from US$1,000 for tree planting projects to US$25,000 for education/training development (Florida Division of Forestry 2004; South Carolina Forestry Commis- sion 2004; Wisconsin DNR 2004). In most cases, these awards are matching grants, meaning that the grantee must match the agency dollar for dollar. Citizen involvement in the public planning process is often described as a “ladder of participation” (Arnstein 1969), for which the level of participation is defined in terms of ladder rungs. Lower rungs involve manipulation and therapy where education and therapy are used to gain public support. Middle rungs involve information, consulta- tion, and placation. Only the higher rungs (partnership, delegation, and citizen control) actually give decision- making power to the citizen participants. Urban and community forestry programs tend to operate on the middle and upper rungs of this ladder. The South Carolina Forestry Commission has an urban and community forestry (U&CF) program that is funded through the USDA Forest Service (South Carolina Forestry Commission 2003b). South Carolina divides eligible propos- als into three categories: community forestry program development or improvement, information and education, and nonprofit administration. Community forestry program development or improvement projects include the develop- ment of tree ordinances, tree inventory software, student internships, and greenspace inventories. Information and education projects include urban and community Arbor Day activities, workshops, and public service materials. Nonprofit administration projects include volunteer training, workshops, and temporary staffing. Six categories are used to define eligible recipients of these grants: municipal, county, state agency, university or college, nonprofit organization, and intermediate school. All of the grants offered by the South Carolina Forestry Commission involve one-to-one matching dollars. In 2003, the South Carolina Forestry Commission awarded 32 grants that totaled US$230,000 (South Carolina Forestry Commission 2003a). Examples of the projects that were funded include greenway development, urban and ©2005 International Society of Arboriculture community forestry classes, tree planting and inventory staffing, and outdoor education. The success of urban and community forestry programs depends upon the active participation of people in the community. In many cases, people do not know of the existence of the programs. Therefore, successful participation becomes a product of inspiring interest through education. A better understanding of what motivates people to take active interest in these programs will allow state, local, and non- profit urban and community forestry organizations to evaluate future programs in terms of what has been success- ful, and what can be adjusted to be more effective. Insight on public participation will enable state, local, and nonprofit organizations in South Carolina to identify what does and does not motivate individuals, communities, county and municipal decision-makers, various industries/ professionals, and others to participate in U&CF programs or to embrace and adopt principles and approaches that improve urban and community forests. The purpose of this study was to provide a perspective on what drives successful U&CF programs, document the aspects of the programs that have achieved the greatest impact, and identify the various factors that encourage nonparticipants to become participants. STUDY METHODS In fall 2003, 324 South Carolina residents were surveyed to identify the characteristics of participants and nonpar- ticipants in urban and community forestry programs and their attitudes toward the programs. Past participants were identified from South Carolina Forestry Commission records and represent 52% of those surveyed. The remaining 156 residents who had not participated in urban and community forestry programs were randomly selected statewide from occupational groups that would be ex- pected to exhibit an equal interest in urban and commu- nity forestry (city/town officials, school educators, arborists, horticulturalists, foresters, consultants, forest- ers, and general public). Thus, nonparticipants in this survey represent people who might be expected to have an interest in or reason to participate in urban and commu- nity forestry programs. This helped to create a sample that was more sympatric than a completely randomized design. That is, the two groups (participants and nonparticipants) were similar in most characteristics. The nonparticipants were selected using tools such as phone books, occupa- tional directories, and references from county foresters. Also, both groups were equally diverse in term of geo- graphical location across the state and community size. The survey was distributed through the mail and incorporated the Dillman Total Design Method (Dillman 1978). We received a total of 192 responses, representing a 59% response rate. Of this, approximately 56% of the
May 2005
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