Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 40(1): January 2014 1. Recommendations for pruning open-grown trees to reduce wind damage (Gilman et al. 2008b). 2. The dynamic contribution and the damping effects of branches. Studies indicating that the form of the tree has a greater influence than the material properties (Sellier and Fourcaud 2009) have implications for branch removal and future pruning practices. 3. Modeling of open-grown trees should account for the multimodal branch response. The com- plexity of dynamic analysis is likely to increase in the near future but will need to be con- densed into simpler methods for practical use. 4. Tree failure under actual wind conditions has not yet been measured (Hale et al. 2010), and so extending the results from current research is difficult, especially when trying to deter- mine tree failure and stability in winds. 5. Associated with tree failure is the understand- ing of the energy transfer from the wind to the tree. There is little published data on actual wind loads on trees and understanding the energy transfer process may assist in under- standing how trees and branches dissipate energy and dampen the wind energy. This may be an important factor in understanding how trees survive otherwise damaging winds. 6. Finally, the topic of torsional forces and loads on trunks and branches has not yet been investigated, yet may be critical in under- standing the total loads on trees (Niklas 1992). Torsional forces that twist trunks and branches are observed in trees during winds, but no method has yet been developed to measure the dynamic torsional loads experienced by trees during winds. Acknowledgments. We would like to thank the International Soci- ety of Arboriculture and the ISA Science and Research Committee for funding this literature review. Thanks to Aaron Carpenter who assisted in formatting of the manuscript and to two anonymous reviewers for valuable comments. LITERATURE CITED Baker, C.J. 1997. Measurements of the natural frequencies of trees. Journal of Experimental Botany 48:1125–1132. Baker, C.J., and H.J. Bell. 1992. Aerodynamics of urban trees. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 44:2655–2666. Balachandran, B., and E.B. Magrab. 2004. Vibrations. Thomson Pub. Belcher, S.E., I.N. Harman, and J.J. Finnigan. 2012. The wind in the willows: Flows in forest canopies in complex terrain. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 44:479–504. Bertram, J.E.A. 1989. Size-dependent differential scaling in branches: The mechanical design of trees revisited. Trees 4:241–253. Blackburn, P., J.A. Petty, and K.F. Miller. 1988. An assessment of the static and dynamic factors involved in windthrow. Forestry 61(1):29–43. Brüchert, F., F. Becker, and T. Speck. 2000. The mechanics of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst]: Mechanical properties of standing trees from different thinning regimes. Forest Ecol- ogy and Management 135:45–62. Brüchert, F., O. Speck, and H.-C.H. Spatz. 2003. Oscillations of plants’ stems and their damping: Theory and experimentation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 358(1437):1487–1492. Brudi, E., and P. Van Wassenaer. 2002. Trees and statics: Non- destructive failure analysis. pp. 53–69. In: E.T. Smiley and K. Coder (Eds.). Tree Structure and Mechanics Conference Proceedings: How Trees Stand Up and Fall Down. ISA, Cham- paign, Illinois, U.S. Cao, J., Y. Tamura, and A. Yoshida. 2012. Wind tunnel study on aerodynamic characteristics of shrubby specimens of three tree species. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 11(4):465–476. Castro-Garcia, S., G.L. Blanco-Roldan, J.A. Gil-Ribes, and J. Aguera-Vega. 2008. Dynamic analysis of olive trees in intensive orchards under forced vibration. Trees 22:795–802. Chopra, A.K. 1995. Dynamics of structures. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, U.S. Ciſtci, C. 2012. Risk quantification of maple trees subjected to wind loading. Doctoral dissertation. University of Massachusetts, Amherst Massachusetts. Ciſtci, C., S.F. Brena, B. Kane, and S.R. Arwade. 2013. The effect of crown architecture on dynamic amplification factor of an open- grown sugar maple (Acer saccharum L.). Trees, Springer, March. Clough, R.W., and J. Penzien. 1993. Dynamics of structures. McGraw Hill, New York, City, New York, U.S. Coutts, M.P. 1986. Components of tree stability in Sitka spruce on peaty gley soil. Forestry 59:173–197. Coutts, M.P., and J. Grace. 1995. Wind and Trees. Cambridge Uni- versity Press. Cullen, S. 2002a. Trees and wind: A bibliography for tree care pro- fessionals. Journal of Arboriculture 28(1):41–51. Cullen, S. 2002b. Trees and Wind; Wind scales and speeds. Journal of Arboriculture 28(5):237–242. Dahle, G.A., and J.C. Grabosky. 2010a. Allometric patterns in Acer platanoides (Aceraceae) branches. Trees: Structure and Func- tion 24:321–326. Dahle, G.A., and J.C. Grabosky. 2010b. Variation in modulus of elasticity (E) along Acer platanoides L. (Aceraceae) branches. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 9:227–233. ©2014 International Society of Arboriculture 11
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