34 Gilman and Harchick: Root System Morphology Influences Lateral Stability sectional area of roots growing straight from the root ball into the landscape soil without deflection, and/or entrain a large soil mass close to the trunk, should enhance anchorage by resisting overturning. CONCLUSIONS Although root forms oſten associated with health problems and trunk wood defects—such as cir- cling and descending roots—can be caused by the propagation container, anchorage in the current study was more influenced by root morphology im- parted by the larger container than by the propaga- tion container. This occurred because root initiation from the flare continued aſter shiſting liners into the 3.8 L containers, especially when vertical root growth was discouraged by air-pruning at the bot- tom. Trees with root balls containing horizontal- oriented straight roots, little imprint from the container, and few deflected roots were most stable aſter landscape planting. Growing in a production system that 1) discourages vertical root growth very early in production, 2) extends the period of root initiation at the root flare, and 3) minimizes root deflection provides for better anchored trees seven months aſter planting into the landscape than trees grown with large descending and circling roots. Acknowledgments. Thanks to the Horticultural Research Institute and GreatSouthernTreeConference.org (which included funding from the container manufacturers of the tested and other contain- ers) for partial funding. LITERATURE CITED Anonymous. 1998. Florida Grades and Standards for Nursery Plants. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Gainesville, Florida, U.S. Arnold, M.A., and E. Young. 1991. CuCo3 -painted containers and root pruning affect apple and green ash root growth and cytokinin levels. HortScience 26:242–244. Balisky, A.C., P. Salonius, C. Walli, and D. Brinkman. 1995. Seed- ling roots and forest floor: Misplaced and neglected aspects of British Columbia’s reforestation effort? Forestry Chronicle 71:59–65. Burdett, A.N. 1990. Physiological process in plantation establish- ment and the development of specifications for forest planting stock. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 20:415–427. Chapman, K.A., and S.J. Colombo. 2006. Early root morphology of jack pine seedlings grown in different types of container. Scan- dinavian Journal Forestry Science 21:372–370. Coutts, M.P. 1986. Components of tree stability in Sitka spruce on peaty, gley soil. Forestry 59:173–197. Coutts, M.P. 1983. Root architecture and tree stability. Plant and Soil 71:171–188. ©2014 International Society of Arboriculture Coutts, M.P., C.C.N. Nielson, and B.C. Nicoll. 1999. The develop- ment of symmetry, rigidity, and anchorage in the structural root system of conifers. Plant and Soil 217:1–15. Danjon, F., T. Fourcaud, and D. Bert. 2005. Root architecture and wind-firmness of mature Pinus pinaster. New Phytologist 168:387–400. Ennos, A.R. 1995. Development of buttress in rainforest trees: the influence of mechanical stress. pp. 293–301. In: M.P. Coutts and J. Grace (Eds.). Wind and Trees. Cambridge Univ. Press Cam- bridge, UK. Fourcaud, T., X. Zhang, and A. Stokes. 2008. Understanding the im- pact of root morphology on overtuning mechanisms: a model approach. Annals of Botany 101:1267–1280. Gilman, E.F., and C. Wiese. 2012. Root pruning technique at plant- ing impacts root growth and anchorage two years aſter planting. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 38:232–239. Gilman, E.F., M. Paz, and C. Harchick. 2010. Root ball shaving im- proves root systems on seven species in containers. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 28:13–18. Gilman, E.F., and F.J. Masters. 2010. Effect of tree size, root prun- ing, and production method on root growth and lateral ability of Quercus virginiana. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 36:281–291. Gilman, E.F., and J. Grabosky. 2011. Quercus virginiana root attributes and lateral stability aſter planting at different depths. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 10:3–9. Gilman, E.F., C. Harchick, D. Meador, and P. Fisher. 2012. Propaga- tion container type, time in container, and root pruning affect root development of young Acer rubrum. Journal of Environ- mental Horticulture 30:150–160. Gilman, E.F., J. Miesbauer, C. Harchick, and R.C. Beeson. 2013. Impact of tree size at planting, mulch and irrigation on Acer rubrum L. growth and anchorage. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 39:173–181. Gilman, E.F., and M. Paz. 2014. Root system morphology influ- enced by container design, retention time, and root pruning. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 40:16–26. Hewitt, A., and G.W. Watson. 2009. Bare root liner production can alter tree root architecture. Journal of Environmental Horticul- ture 27:99–104. Khuder, H., A. Stokes, F. Danjon, K. Gouskou, and F. Lagane. 2007. Is it possible to manipulate root anchorage in young trees? Plant and Soil 294:87–102. Krasowski, M.J. 2003. Root system modifications by nursery culture reflect on post-planting growth and development of coniferous seedlings. Forestry Chronicle 79:882–891. Krasowski, M.J., and J.N. Owens. 2000. Morphological and physical attributes of root systems and seedlings growth in three differ- ent Picea glauca reforestation stock. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 30:1669–1681. Lindgren, O., and G. Örlander. 1978. A study on root development and stability of 6 to 7-year old container plants. pp. 142–144. In: E. Van Eerden and J.M. Kinghorn (Eds.). Proc. of the Root Form of Planted Trees Symp., Victoria, B. C., Can., May 16–19, 1978. Can. For. Serv., B.C., Joint Rep. No. 8. Lindström, A., and G. Rune. 1999. Root deformation in plantations of container-grown Scots pine trees: Effects on root growth, tree stability and stem straightness. Plant and Soil 217:29–37. Lindström, A., C. Hellqvist, and E. Stattin. 2005. Mini Seedlings – A New Forest Regeneration System. pp. 56–58. In: The Thin Green Line: A symposium on the state-of-the-art in reforestation.
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