66 in the turfed level of the soil suggests that fill had been added to even the contours of the backyard and facilitate the growth and mowing of the turf. It would seem that a number of the correlated criteria applied to the tree. Once again, it raises ques- tions as to whether the storm was the final trigger in a lengthy chain of events leading to windthrow and whole-tree failure. Many of these events relate to tree management and need to be given greater consideration by gardeners and arborists. Acknowledgments. I thank my colleague Dr. Peter May and Ms. E. Moore, linguist, for their many helpful suggestions, which improved the draſt manuscript. LITERATURE CITED Achim, A., and B. Nicholl. 2009. Modelling the anchorage of shallow- rooted trees. Forestry 82:273–284. Achim, A., B. Nicoll, S. Mochan, and B. Gardiner. 2003. Wind stability of trees on slopes. In: B. Ruck (Ed.). Proceedings of International Conference on Wind Effects on Trees. University of Karlsruhe, Germany. 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Coder, K.D. 2010. Root Strength and Tree Anchorage. Warnell School Outreach Monograph, WSFNR 10-19, University of Georgia. Coile, T.S. 1937. Distribution of forest tree roots in North Carolina Piedmont soils. Journal of Forestry 35:247–57. Coomes, D.A., and R.B. Allen. 2007. Effects of size, competition, and altitude on tree growth. Journal of Ecology 95:1084–1097. Coutts, M. 1982. The tolerance of tree roots to waterlogging. V. Growth of woody roots of Sitka spruce and lodgepole pine in waterlogged soils. New Phytologist 90:467–76. Coutts, M. 1986. Components of tree stability in Sitka spruce on peaty grey soil. Forestry 59:173–197. Coutts, M.P., and J. Grace (Eds.). 1995. Wind and trees, pp 133–164. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Crook, M.J., and A.R. Ennos. 1996. The anchorage mechanics of deep rooted larch, Larix europea × L. japonica. Journal of Experimental Botany 47:1509–17. Cucchi, V., and D. Bert. 2003. Wind firmness of Pinus pinaster Ait. stands in southwest France: Influence of stand density, fertiliza- tion and breeding in two experimental stands damaged during the 1999 storm. Annals of Forest Science 60:209–226. Cucchi, V., C. Meredieu, A. Stokes, S. Berthier, D. Bert, M. Najar, A. Denis, and R. Lastennet. 2004. Root anchorage of inner and edge trees in stands of maritime pine growing in different pod- zolic soil conditions. Trees 18:460–466. Day, S.D. 1999. Growth and physiology of several urban tree spe- cies in soils disrupted by construction fill or compaction. Ph.D. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, U.S. England, A.H., C.J. Baker, and S. Saunderson. 2000. A dynamic analysis of windthrow of trees. Forestry 73:225–237. Esau, K. 1965. Plant Anatomy, 2nd Edition. Wiley, New York, New York. U.S. Flesch, T.K., and J.D. Wilson. 1999. Wind and remnant tree swaying in forest cutblocks. II. Relating measured tree swaying to wind statistics. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 93:243–258. Fraser, A.I., and J.B.H Gardiner. 1967. Rooting and stability. For- estry Commission Bulletin. No. 40. HMSO, London, England. Galilei, G. 1638. Dialogues concerning two new sciences. Translated by Henry Crew and Alfonso de Salvio, 1954, Dover Publica- tions, New York City, New York, U.S. Gardiner, B., and G. Stacey. 1996. Designing forest edges to improve wind stability. Forestry Commission Technical Paper 16. For- estry Commission, Edinburgh, UK. Gardiner, B.A. 1994. Wind and wind forces in a plantation spruce forest. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 67:161–186. Gardiner, B.A. 1995. The interactions of wind and tree movement in forest canopies. In: M.P. Coutts and J. Grace (Eds.). Wind and trees, pp. 41–59. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Gardiner, B.A., B. Marshall, A. Achim, R. Belcher, and C. Wood. 2005. The stability of different silvicultural systems: A wind- tunnel investigation. Forestry 78:471–483. Gardiner, B.A., G.R. Stacey, R.E. Belcher, and C.J. Wood. 1997. Field and wind-tunnel assessments of the implications of respacing on tree stability. Forestry 70:233–252. Gilman, E.F. 2013. Anchorage influence by production method and root pruning. Journal of Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 39:1–5. Grace, J. 2003. Mechanical stress and wind damage. pp. 16–23. In: B. Thomas (Ed). Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences. Elsevier Academic Press.
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