Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 41(1): January 2015 CONCLUSIONS Reducing length by pruning one stem of a co- dominant stem pair reduced ε on the pruned stem and the trunk below the union in 22 m/s turbu- lent wind. Data suggest this could reduce dam- age in a storm when wind impacts both stems equally and passes through the union, as in this study. The non-pruned stem of the codominant pair experienced no ε change in wind following reduction or removal of the competing codomi- nant stem. Results could have been different if wind was applied so that one stem sheltered the other or if ε was measured in different directions. LITERATURE CITED Anonymous. 1998. Grades and standards for nursery plants. Florida Department of Plant Industry, Gainesville, FL. Anonymous. 2009. Guideline Specifications for Nursery Tree Qual- ity. Urban Tree Foundation, Visalia, California, U.S. Costello, L.R., and A.M. Berry. 1991. The California tree failure re- port program: An overview. Journal of Arboriculture 17:256–250. Dahle, G.A., and J.C. Grabosky. 2010. Variation in modulus of elas- ticity (E) along Acer platanoides L. (Aceraceae) branches. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 9:227–233. Duryea, M.L., E. Kampf, and R.C. Littell. 2007. Hurricanes and the urban forest: I. Effects on southeastern United States coastal plain tree species. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 33:83–97. Edberg, J., A.M. Berry, and L.R. Costello. 1994. Patterns of tree fail- ure in Monterey pine. Journal of Arboriculture 20:297–304. Eisner, N., E.F. Gilman, and J. Grabosky. 2002. Branch morphology impacts compartmentalization of pruning wounds. Journal of Arboriculture 28:99–105. European Arboricultural Council. 2005. European tree pruning guide, second edition. European Arboricultural Council. 20 pp. Forshey, C.G., D.C. Elfving, and R.L. Stebbins. 1992. Training and pruning apple and pear trees. American Society for Horticul- ture Science. Alexandria, Virginia, U.S. Gilman, E.F. 2003. Branch-to-stem diameter ratio affects strength of attachment. Journal of Arboriculture 29:291–294. Gilman, E.F., and F. Masters. 2010. Effect of tree size, root pruning and production method on root growth and lateral stability of Quercus virginiana. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 36:281–291. Gilman, E.F., and J. Grabosky. 2009. Growth partitioning three years following structural pruning of Quercus virginiana. Arbo- riculture & Urban Forestry 35:281–286. Gilman, E.F., J.C. Grabosky, S. Jones, and C. Harchick. 2008. Effects of pruning dose and type on trunk movement in tropical storm winds. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 34:13–19. Hauer, R.J., W. Wang, and J.O. Dawson.1993. Ice storm damage to urban trees. Journal of Arboriculture 19:187–194. James, K. 2003. Dynamic loading of trees. Journal of Arboriculture 29:165–171. Kane, B., and E.T. Smiley. 2006. Drag coefficients and crown area estimation of red maple. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36:1951–1958. 9 Kane, B., and P. Clouston. 2008. Tree pulling tests of large shade trees in the genus Acer. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 34:101–109. Kane, B., R. Farrell, S.M. Zedaker, J.R. Loferski, and D.W. Smith. 2008. Failure mode and prediction of the strength of branch attachments. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 34:308–316. Kane, B., Y. Modarres-Sadeghi, K. James, and M. Reiland. 2014. Effects of crown structure on the sway characteristics of large decurrent trees. Trees 28:151–159. Kristoffersen, P., O. Bühler, S. Ugilt Larsen, and T.B. Randrup. 2010. Growth of newly established roadside trees in response to weed control and pruning. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 36:35–40. MacDaniels, L.H. 1932. Factors affecting the breaking strength of apple tree crotches. Abstract, Proceedings American Society Horticulture Science 29:44. Mayhead, G.J., J.B.H. Gardiner, and D.W. Durrant. 1975. A report on the physical properties of conifers in relation to plantation stability. Forestry Commission Research and Development Division, Roslin, Midlothian, UK. 39 pp. Miesbauer, J.W., E.F. Gilman, and M.C. Giurcanu. 2014b. Effects of tree crown structure on dynamic properties of Acer rubrum L. ‘Florida Flame’. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 40(4):218–229. Miesbauer, J.W., E.F. Gilman, F. Masters, and S. Nitesh. 2014a. Impact of branch orientation on breaking stress in Liriodendron tulipifera L. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 13:526–533. Miller, V.J. 1958. Crotch influence on strength and breaking point of apple tree branches. Journal American Society Horticulture Science 73:27–32. Milne, R. 1991. Dynamics of swaying of Picea sitchensis. Tree Physi- ology 9:383–399. Moore, J.R., and D.A. Maguire. 2004. Natural sway frequencies and damping ratios of trees: Concepts, review, and synthesis of pre- vious studies. Trees 18:195–203. Sellier, D., and T. Fourcaud. 2009. Crown structure and wood properties: Influence on tree sway and response to high winds. American Journal of Botany 96:885–896. Smiley, E.T. 2003. Does included bark reduce the strength of codominant stems? Journal of Arboriculture 29:104–106. Smiley, E.T., and B. Kane. 2006. Effects of pruning type on wind load- ing of Acer rubrum. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 32:33–40. Smiley, E.T., N. Matheny, and S. Lilly. 2011. Tree Risk Assessment. International Society of Arboriculture, Champaign, Illinois, U.S.. von Aufsess, H. 1975. The formation of a protective zone at the base of branches of broad-leaved and coniferous trees and its effec- tiveness in preventing fungi from penetrating into the heart- wood of living trees. Forstwissen Centralblatt 94:140–152. Edward F. Gilman (corresponding author) Environmental Horticulture Department University of Florida Jason W. Miesbauer Environmental Horticulture Department University of Florida F.J. Masters Civil and Coastal Engineering Departments University of Florida ©2015 International Society of Arboriculture
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