44 Fettig et al.: Sampling of Forest and Shade Tree Insects Fettig et al. (2001), including 9% of forest pests of at least moderate importance in the United States and Canada (Armstrong and Ives 1995; USDA-FS 1998, 1999, 2000). IPM IMPLEMENTATION Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs attempt to reduce insect-associated losses to acceptable levels using multiple techniques that are effective, economically viable, and ecologically compatible. Sampling to determine popula- tion density or classify pest status is the cornerstone of most IPM programs. Much effort has been devoted to the development, theory, and application of sampling methods (Fettig et al. 2001). However, our research indicates that only 38% of species listed as at least moderately important in the United States and Canada currently have useful sampling programs available. Even fewer of these programs have been incorporated into well-defined IPM programs. A notable exception is the recent development of an IPM program for R. frustrana (Asaro et al. 2003). The species is a common regeneration pest of pine plantations in the southeastern United States. Larval feeding can cause shoot mortality and tree deformity, height and volume reductions, compression wood increases, and occasional tree mortality (Asaro et al. 2003). The complex of pest, host, and system naturally lends itself to IPM practices. The IPM program for R. frustrana includes six distinct components. Initially, host species (1) and plantation age (2) are used for basic hazard rating (3) of the infested stand (Hood et al. 1986). High hazard stands are recommended for further monitoring via pheromone-baited traps to estimate damage levels (4) (Asaro and Berisford 2001). If high damage is predicted, chemical control may be war- ranted to avoid economically significant growth losses, particularly on sites of medium to high quality (5). Insecti- cide spray timing models and schedules are reported that allow increased efficacy and reduced application frequency over conventional calendar sprays (Fettig and Berisford 1999, 2002; Fettig et al. 1998, 2000a, 2000b, 2003). Finally, post-treatment evaluations (6) are recommened because continual, nonjudicious use of insecticides is not economical or environmentally sound and can lead to secondary outbreaks of scales and aphids (Asaro et al. 2003). This IPM program incorporates knowledge accumulated during 40 years of both basic and applied research. Its development is a primary example of the need for developing sampling techniques and programs that later can be integrated with control methods (Asaro et al. 2003). A significant opportunity exists for developing similar tools to aid in control decision-making for a large number of pests (Table 2). Significant efforts should be conducted to provide tools that are useful to the resource manager, urban forester, and arborist for the major forest and shade tree pests. Current trends suggest that efforts should concen- ©2005 International Society of Arboriculture trate on species important to the urban forest and inten- sively managed forest plantations. LITERATURE CITED Armstrong, J.A., and W.G.H. Ives. 1995. Forest Insect Pests in Canada. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Science and Sustainable Development Directorate. Asaro, C., and C.W. Berisford. 2001. Predicting infestation levels of the Nantucket pine tip moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) using pheromone traps. Environ. Entomol. 30:776–784. Asaro, C., C.J. Fettig, K.W. McCravy, J.T. Nowak, and C.W. Berisford. 2003. The Nantucket pine tip moth: A literature review with management implications. J. Entomol. Sci. 38:1–40. Barbosa, P., and M.R. Wagner. 1989. Introduction to Forest and Shade Tree Insects. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. Billings, R.F. 1988. Forecasting southern pine beetle infestation trends with pheromone traps, pp 295–306. In Payne, T.L., and H. Saarenmaa (Eds.). Integrated Control of Scolytid Bark Beetles. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA. Binns, M.R., and N.J. Bostanian. 1990. Robustness in empirically based binomial decision rules for integrated pest management. J. Econ. Entomol. 83:420–427. Binns, M.R., and J.P. Nyrop. 1992. Sampling insect populations for the purpose of IPM decision-making. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 37:427–453. Brewer, M.J., D.E. Legg, and J.E. Kaltenbach. 1994. Comparison of three sequential sampling plans using binomial counts to classify insect infestation with respect to decision thresholds. Environ. Entomol. 23:812–826. Buhyoff, G.J., J.D. Wellman, and T.C. Daniel. 1982. Predicting scenic quality for mountain pine beetle and western spruce budworm damaged forest vistas. For. Sci. 28:827–838. Cameron, R.S. 1981. Towards Integrated Pest Management in Southern Pine Seed Orchards, with Emphasis on the Biology of Tetyra bipunctata (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) and the Pheromone of Dioryctria clariorlas (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Texas Forest Service Publication 126. Coffelt, M.A., and P.B. Schultz. 1990. Development of an aesthetic injury level to decrease pesticide use against orangestriped oakworm (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) in an urban pest management project. J. Econ. Entomol. 83:2044–2049. Coulson, R.N. 1979. Population dynamics of bark beetles. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 24:417–447. ———. 1980. Population dynamics. In Thatcher, R.C., J.L. Searcy, J.E. Costner, and G.D. Hertel (Eds.). The Southern Pine Beetle. General Technical Bulletin 1631. USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC. 267 pp.
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