Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 39(1): January 2013 CONCLUSION Formative pruning is a cost effective way of reducing structural defects in trees and improving the quality of the structure of street tree populations. Overwhelmingly, the major struc- tural fault recorded was the presence of codominant stems in the canopy or trunk, often exacerbated by the presence of included bark. All other structural defects recorded were in much smaller numbers. A small amount of work when the trees are young, in the order of 1–4 minutes, would re- duce many problems associated with mature tree failure. The use of current labor market prices is a way of costing works, which allows the transformation of the time used into a monetary value appropriate for today’s and projected markets. With a range of $1.00–$4.13, depending on species, it makes the prospect of formative pruning small trees on a large scale not only attractive but effective economically, especially when com- pared to the cost of remedial pruning works on mature street trees. The result of not formative pruning the trees, is a vicious cycle of removing poor trees, structurally pruning oth- er trees, replanting and not having time to formatively prune new trees. In order to break this cycle, all new trees should be pruned on a cycle of two to four years, at least two or three times when young. Providing a strong structural framework in the beginning will reduce the work required in the future. Acknowledgments. The authors acknowledge the assistance of Mr. J. Summers (City of Hume) who provided data on the pruning of 37, 20-year-old eucalypts. Mr. T. Greenwood (The Tree Works) and Mr. P. Kenyon (Tree Tactics) are thanked for their assistance in providing estimated labor costs for formative pruning trees and data on pruning 20-year-old trees. Ms. E. Moore is thanked for her suggestions for im- proving the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED Gilman, E.F. 1997. Trees for Urban and Suburban Landscapes. Delmar Publishers, Albany, New York, U.S.. Gilman, E.F. 2002, An Illustrated Guide to Pruning, 2nd edition. Delmar Publishers, Albany, New York, U.S. Gilman, E.F. 2003. Branch-to-stem diameter ratio affects strength of attachment. Journal of Arboriculture 29(5):291–4. Harris, R.W., J.R. Clark, and N.P. Matheny. 1999. Arboriculture. Integrated Management of Landscape Trees, Shrubs, and Vines. 3rd edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, U.S. Joyce, D. 2002. Pruning and Training Plants. A Complete Guide, Octopus Publishing, London, England. Matheny, N.P., and J.R. Clark. 1994. A Photographic Guide to the Evaluation of Hazard Trees in Urban Areas. International Society of Arboriculture, Champaign, Illinois, U.S. McPherson, E.G. 2003. A benefit-cost analysis of ten street tree species in Modesto, California, U.S. Journal of Arboriculture 29(1):1–7. Moore, G.M. 1992. Branch Attachment and Pruning, in Scientific Management of Plants in the Urban Environment. VCAH Burnley, Melbourne, Australia. Moore, G.M. 2003. Crown Thinning and Weight Reduction: Begin- ning the Analysis, Conference Proceedings. International Society of Arboriculture Australian Chapter, Adelaide, Australia. Oleksak, B., M. Kmetz-Gonzalez, and D.K. Struve. 1997. Terminal bud cluster pruning promotes apical control in transplanted shade tree whips. Journal of Arboriculture 23(4):147–53. Pirone, P.P., J.R. Hartman, M.A. Sall, and T.P. Pirone. 1988. Tree Main- tenance. 6th edition, Oxford University Press, U.S. Shigo, A. 1991. Modern Arboriculture: A Systems Approach to the Care of Trees and Their Associates, Shigo and Trees, Associates. Smiley, E.T. 2003. Does Included Bark Reduce the Strength of Codomi- nant Stems? Journal of Arboriculture 29(2):104–5. Standards Australia, 2007. Australian Standard AS-4373, Pruning of Amenity Trees, Standards Australia, Sydney. Cameron Ryder Senior Consulting Arborist Homewood Consulting 23 Worrell Street Nunawading, Victoria, Australia 3131 Gregory Moore, Ph.D. (corresponding author) Senior Research Associate Burnley College University of Melbourne 500 Yarra Boulevard Richmond, Australia 3121
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