Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 39(1): January 2013 decay lesions. This would provide valuable information about the diagnostic technique’s performance when evaluating material property changes caused by a dynamic host-fungus interaction. CONCLUSION These clarifications of the IR camera technique’s resolution and precision under controlled experimental conditions are scientifi- cally important and practically relevant. In this study, internal voids occupying more than 76% stem cross-sectional area pro- duced obvious temperature anomalies in the evening. Although the ultimate conclusions about the diagnostic technique were sim- ilar for both plant species, the temperature change around the 3.8 cm void periphery was more pronounced in the D. fragrans linear temperature trend. The results suggest the technique can be used around nightfall in the tropics to detect relatively large internal de- fects, but the exact temperature differences between defective and healthy stems may not be consistent, particularly among different tree species, sizes, and shapes. In addition, it is unclear to what ex- tent the conditions facilitating a positive identification of the larg- est void in this study can be found in typical landscape settings. The findings reported from this experiment can broadly guide expectations about the technique’s usefulness when ap- plied to small trees with internal defects. The non-invasive measurements of the IR camera are highly appealing to arbor- ists wishing to avoid any physical damage rendering a stem susceptible to wood decay infection, but the relatively low res- olution of the device may impede greater professional accep- tance and practical application. Commercially, there is a wide range of devices available that are able to detect and measure defects within tree stems, and many of these have compara- tively higher resolution than reported here for the IR camera. LITERATURE CITED Adaskaveg, J.E., R.L. Gilbertson, and R.A. Blanchette. 1990. Compara- tive studies of delignification caused by Ganoderma species. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 56(6):1932–1943. Bauerle, W.L., T.H. Whitlow, C.R. Pollock, and E.A. Frongillo. 2002. A laser-diode-based system for measuring sap flow by the heat pulse method. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 110:275–284. Beall, F.C., and W.W. Wilcox. 1987. Relationship of acoustic emission during radial compression to mass loss from decay. Forest Products Journal 37:38–42. Bellett-Travers, M., and S. Morris. 2010. The relationship between sur- face temperature and radial wood thickness of twelve trees harvested in Nottinghamshire. Arboricultural Journal 33:15–26. Brashaw, B.K., V. Bucur, F. Divos, R. 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Arboricultural Journal 30:259–270. Catena, G., L. Palla, and M. Catalano. 1990. Thermal infrared detection of cavities in trees. European Journal of Forest Pathology 20:201–210. Deflorio, G., C. Johnson, S. Fink, and F.W.M.R. Schwarze. 2008. Decay development in the sapwood of coniferous and deciduous trees inocu- lated with six wood decay fungi. Forest Ecology and Management 255:2373–2383. Deflorio, G., E. Franz, S. Fink, and F.W.M.R. Schwarze. 2009. Host re- sponses in the xylem of trees after inoculation with six wood-decay fungi differing in invasiveness. Botany 87:26–35. Deflorio, G., S. Fink, and F.W.M.R. Schwarze. 2008. Detection of incipi- ent decay in tree stems with sonic tomography after wounding and fungal inoculation. Wood Science and Technology 42:117–132. Do, F., and A. Rocheteau. 2002. Influence of natural temperature gra- dients on measurements of xylem sap flow with thermal dissipation probes. 2. Advantages and calibration of a noncontinuous heating system. Tree Physiology 22:649–654. Ellison, M. 2005. Quantified tree risk assessment used in the manage- ment of amenity trees. Journal of Arboriculture 31(2):57–65. Evert, R.F. 2006. Esau’s Plant Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development, 3rd edi- tion. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S. 601 pp. Forest Products Laboratory. 2010. Wood handbook: Wood as an engi- neering material. General Technical Report FPL-GTR-190. U.S. De- partment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin, U.S. 508 pp. Greene, J.C., V.J. Caracelli, and W.F. Graham. 1989. Toward a concep- tual framework for mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 11:255–274. IBM, Corp., 2010. IBM® SPSS® Statistics Version 19.0. International Business Machines Corp., NewYork, New York, U.S. Joel, Rayner. 1996. Basic Engineering Thermodynamics, 5th edition. Addison Wesley Longman, Essex, England. 647 pp. Johnstone, D., G. Moore, M. Tausz, and M. Nicolas. 2010. The mea- surement of wood decay in landscape trees. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 36(3):121–127. Kane, B.C.P. and H.D.P. Ryan. 2004. The accuracy of formulas used to assess strength loss due to decay in trees. Journal of Arboriculture 30(6):347–356. Kane, B.C.P., and H.D.P. Ryan. 2003. Examining formulas that as- sess strength loss due to decay in trees: Woundwood toughness improvement in red maple (Acer rubrum). Journal of Arboriculture 29(4):208–215. Köstner, B., A. Granier, and J. Cermák. 1998. Sapflow measurements in forest stands: methods and uncertainties. Annals of Forest Science 55:13–27. Larsson, B., B. Bengtsson, and M. Gustafsson. 2004. Nondestructive de- tection of decay in living trees. Tree Physiology 24(7):853–858. Leong, E.C., D.C. Burcham, and Y.K. Fong. 2012. A purposeful classifica- tion of tree decay detection tools. Arboricultural Journal 34(2):91–115. 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