226 LITERATURE CITED ANSI. 2017. ANSI A300 (Part 1)—2017 Pruning: tree, shrub, and other woody plant management—standard practices (prun- ing). Washington (DC, USA): American National Standards Institute, Inc. Anten NPR, Schieving F. 2010. The role of wood mass density and mechanical constraints in the economy of tree architecture. The American Naturalist. 175:250-260. BSI. 2010. BS3998 recommendations for tree work. London (UK): British Standards Institute. Cook P, Northey B. 2012. Three methods of tree shaping every aspiring tree shaper should be aware of. Toowoomba (Aus- tralia): SharBrin Publishing Ptd Ltd. Dresch HE, Dinwoodie JA. 1996. Timber: structure, properties, conversion and use. London (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd. Gibbs JN, Grieg BJW. 1990. Survey of parkland trees after the Great Storm of October 16, 1987. Arboricultural Journal. 14:321-347. Gilman EF. 2003. Branch to stem diameter ratio affects strength of attachment. Journal of Arboriculture. 29(5):291-294. Gilman EF. 2011. An illustrated guide to pruning. 3rd Ed. Inde- pendence (KY, USA): Cengage Learning. Jaffe MJ. 1973. Thigmomorphogenesis: the response of plant growth and development to mechanical stimulation. Planta. 114:143-157. James K. 2003. Dynamic loading of trees. Journal of Arboriculture. 29(3):165-171. Jungnikl K, Goebbels J, Ingo B, Fratzl P. 2009. The role of material properties for the mechanical adaptation at branch junctions. Trees. 23:605-610. Kane B. 2007. Branch strength of Bradford pear (Pyrus calleryana var. ‘Bradford’). Arboriculture & Urban Forestry. 33:283-291. Kane B, Farrell R, Zedaker SM, Loferski JR, Smith DW. 2008. Failure mode and prediction of the strength of branch attach- ments. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry. 34(5):308-316. Kramer EM. 1999. Observation of topological defects in the xylem of Populus deltoides and implications for the vascular cambium. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 200:223-230. Lev-Yadun S, Aloni R. 1990. Vascular differentiation in branch junctions of trees: circular patterns and functional significance. Trees: Structure and Function. 4:49-54. Lonsdale D. 1999. Principles of tree hazard assessment and management. London (UK): Department for Communities and Local Government. Mattheck C, Breloer H. 1994. The body language of trees: a handbook for failure analysis. London (UK): Stationery Office Books (TSO). Mattheck C, Vorberg U. 1991. The biomechanics of tree fork design. Botanica Acta. 104:399-404. Ozden S, Slater D, Ennos AR. 2017. Fracture properties of green wood formed within the forks of hazel (Corylus avellana L.). Trees: Structure and Function. 31(3):903-917. Pruyn M, Ewers B, Telewski F. 1998. Thigmomorphogenesis: changes in the morphology and mechanical properties of two Populus hybrids in response to mechanical perturbation. Tree Physiology. 20:535-540. Shigo AL. 1985. How tree branches are attached to trunks. Canadian Journal of Botany. 63:1391-1401. Meadows and Slater: Natural Bracing in Crataegus monogyna Slater D. 2016. Assessment of tree forks: course notes. Stroud (UK): Arboricultural Association. Slater D. 2018a. The association between natural braces and the development of bark-included junctions. Arboricultural Journal. 40(1):16-38. Slater D. 2018b. Natural bracing in trees: management recommen- dations. Arboricultural Journal. 40(2):106-133. Slater D, Bradley RS, Withers PJ, Ennos RA. 2014. The anatomy and grain pattern in forks of hazel (Corylus avellana L.) and other tree species. Trees. 28:1437-1448. Slater D, Ennos R. 2013. Determining the mechanical properties of hazel forks by testing their component parts. Trees. 27:1515-1524. Slater D, Ennos R. 2015a. Interlocking wood grain patterns pro- vide improved wood strength properties in forks of hazel (Corylus avellana L.). Arboricultural Journal. 37:21-32. Slater D, Ennos R. 2015b. The level of occlusion of included bark affects the strength of bifurcations in hazel (Corylus avellana L.). Arboriculture & Urban Forestry. 41(4):194-207. Slater D, Harbinson C. 2010. Towards a new model of branch attachment. Arboricultural Journal. 33(2):95-105. Smiley TE. 2003. Does included bark reduce the strength of codominant stems? Journal of Arboriculture. 29(2):104-106. Telewski F, Pruyn M. 1998. Thigmomorphogenesis: a dose response to flexing in Ulmus americana seedlings. Tree Physiology. 18:65-68. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Our thanks go to Dr. John Watt for allowing the use of his wood- land for the supply of branch junctions from his hawthorn trees. We also acknowledge the kind help of Paul Critchley at UCLAN for providing training and support in the use of the Instron™ test- ing machine. Dean Meadows Myerscough College Greenspace Department St. Michael’s Rd Preston, Lancashire, UK Duncan Slater (corresponding author) Myerscough College Greenspace Department St. Michael’s Rd Preston, Lancashire, UK
[email protected] Conflicts of Interest: The authors reported no conflicts of interest. ©2020 International Society of Arboriculture
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