Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 37(4): July 2011 der pavement, the radar unit can detect root presence, but some care and further site data should improve interpretation. It has been observed in forest soils that fast-draining sands provide better signal interpretation when compared to Piedmont clays (But- nor et al. 2001). The current study likely reflects extremes in such con- ditions with an advantage in soils where root growth is unimpeded. Multiple parallel scans with this radar system could be used to link root signal traces to develop a growth axis trajectory through a signal density, or direct signal pairing method between scans. The controlled layer thicknesses of varied materials in pavement section design can allow an operator to adjust the depth of view. Shifts in signal outputs at each layer interface can allow a re- liable depth of field adjustment to provide accurate root depth. This accuracy was not tested here due to the unsupported sag- ging of the roots once excavated during the skeletonizing process. In conclusion, there have been concerns with a general lack of controlled, replicated studies designed to validate ground-pene- trating radar output with actual root counts, due to the difficulty and expense of generating such data. This study fills this need and shows that ground-penetrating radar can be used accurately to identify root presence, if not size, in both a compacted soil and a stone-soil mixture when scanned through a concrete pavement. It points out the need for caution in any interpretation of the nature of the root colonization in soils with massive structure. In the de- signed nature of an urban pavement system, other aspects of infra- structure are mapped and verified in a fairly defined underground environment. Therefore, it is reasonable to suggest roots can be de- tected and mapped using GPR with the proper scanning approach and analysis, much as in other published tree root-GPR studies. LITERATURE CITED Burgess, S., M. Adams, N. Turner, D. White, and C. Ong. 2001. Tree roots: Conduits for deep recharge of soil water. Oecologia 126:158–165. Butnor, J.R., J.A. Doolittle, L. Kress, S. Cohen, and K.H. Johnsen. 2001. Use of ground-penetrating radar to study tree roots in the southeast- ern United States. Tree Physiology 21:1269–1278. Butnor, J.R., J.A. Doolittle, K.A. Johnsen, L. Samuelson, T. Stokes, L. Kress. 2003. Utility of ground-penetrating radar as a root biomass survey tool in forest systems. Soil Science Society of America Jour- nal 67:1607–1615. Cermák, I., J. Hruska, M. Martinkova, and A. Prax. 2000. City tree roots and survival near houses analyzed using sap flow and ground pen- etrating radar technique. Plant Soil 219:103–116. Conyers, L.B., and D. Goodman. 1997. Ground-Penetrating Radar: An In- troduction for Archaeologists. AltaMira Press, ISBN 0-7619-8928-5. Daniels, D.J. 1996. Surface-Penetrating Radar. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, ISBN 0-85296-862-0. Danjon, F., H. Sinoquet, C. Godin, F. Colin, and M. Drexhage. 1999. Characterization of structural tree root architecture using 3D digitiz- ing and AMAPmod software. Plant Soil 211:241–258. Gormally, K., M. McIntosh, and A. Mucciardi. 2010. Calibrating ground- penetrating radar detection and 3D mapping of preferential flow pathways: I. Calibration. Soil Science Society of America Journal, in press. 165 Grabosky, J., N. Bassuk, and H. van Es. 1996. Further testing of rigid urban tree soil materials for use under pavement to increase street tree rooting volumes. Journal of Arboriculture 22(6):255–263. Hirano, Y., M. Dannoura, K. Aono, T. Igarashi, M. Ishii, K. Yamase, N. Makita, and Y. Kanazawa. 2009. Limiting factors in the detection of tree roots using ground-penetrating radar. Plant and Soil 319:15–24. Hruska, J., I. Cermák, and S. Sustek. 1997. Mapping of tree root systems with ground penetrating radar. Tree Physiology 19: 125–130. Nadezhdina, N., and I. Cermák. 2003. Instrumental methods for studies of structure and function of root systems of large trees. Journal of Experimental Botany 54(387):1511–1521. Neal, A. 2004. Ground penetrating radar and its use in sedimentology: principles, problems and progress. Earth-Science Reviews 66:261–330. Nowak, D.J., and J.F. Dwyer. 2007. Understanding the benefits and costs of urban forest ecosystems In: J.E. Kuser (Ed.). Urban and commu- nity forestry in the northeast 2nd edition. pp. 25–46. Shigo, A. 2003. Modern Arboriculture. Shigo and Trees, Associates Press. ISBN 0-943563-09-7. Stokes, A., T. Fourcaud, J. Hruska, I. Cermák , V. Nadyezdhina, and L. Praus. 2002. An evaluation of different methods to investigate root system architecture of urban trees in situ: I. ground-penetrating radar. Journal of Arboriculture 28(1):2–10. Utsi, V. 2000. Development and different modes of operation of a multi- receiver ground penetrating radar system. In: D.A. Noon, G.F. Stick- ley, and D. Longstaff (Eds.). Proc. Eighth Int. Conf. on Ground Pen- etrating Radar. SPIE Vol. 4084, Washington, D.C., pp. 351–355. Nina Bassuk (corresponding author) Professor Dept. of Horticulture Cornell University Ithaca, NY 14853, U.S.
[email protected] Jason Grabosky Associate Professor Dept. of Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources Rutgers University New Brunswick, NJ 08901, U.S. Anthony Mucciardi President TreeRadar, Inc. Silver Spring, MD 20910, U.S. Gary Raffel ISA Certified Arborist Dynamic Tree Systems Bloomfield, NY 14469, U.S. ©2011 International Society of Arboriculture
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