Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 41(2): March 2015 tree mortality. Also, due to the dangers of tree removal, especially with unexpected branch failure due to EAB-weakened trees (Persad et al. 2013), these findings could also factor into safety programs associated with working with EAB-infested ash trees. Early detection is a crucial component of inva- sive species management, especially in eradication programs (Epanchin-Niell et al. 2012; Pluess et al. 2012; Tobin et al. 2014), yet is oſten the major caveat to effectively planning and implementing proactive strategies due to the lack of sensitive tools for monitoring the invading species (Government Accountability Office 2006; Liebhold and Tobin 2008). This is particularly relevant to the EAB–ash tree complex, as ash trees with low densities of EAB oſten exhibit virtually no external symptoms of an infestation (Siegert et al. 2010). Consequently, false negatives for EAB are a major obstacle in its management. Definitive sampling for EAB oſten requires destructively sampling a tree, which is labor intensive and renders subsequent imple- mentation of management strategies to protect the tree as superfluous. Although the results of this study do not contribute to resolving the challenge of false negatives, these findings—such as associa- tion of scaffold cracks and branch failures close to the collar with the early stages of EAB infestation prior to canopy thinning—could supplement other survey tools that are currently available, including tree girdling and monitoring traps (Cappaert et al. 2005; Poland and McCullough 2014). Collectively, the combination of various detection tools enables practitioners to optimize EAB sampling efforts. A combination of visual techniques followed by branch collection and debarking (Ryall et al. 2011) could improve labor and time considerations, particularly in large-scale sampling situations. Such efforts are important in spatially extensive surveys aimed at detecting EAB early enough that proactive mitigating control tactics might be used. Proactive management strategies, including effective Plant Health Care (e.g., pruning, treating with an approved product, supplemental irrigation), enhanced by visual detection techniques, could addi- tionally help in reducing the risks of ash tree failure associated with EAB infestation. Hauer et al. (1993) and Detters et al. (2008) indicated that risk may arise from any situation that introduces deadwood and compromises the structure and load-bearing integ- 107 rity of trees. In both scenarios, EAB could be a con- tributing agent and thus poses additional safety risks to tree care professionals, urban foresters, and arbor- ists. This study highlights the presence of symptoms associated with EAB, including branch fractures in EAB-infested trees and fractures located closer to the union with the stem in trees, which could pre- cede canopy thinning and have not been previously documented to be associated with EAB infestation. Acknowledgments. We thank Scott Kirby of the Davey Tree Experts Co. for help in setting up the survey sites along with Davey Institute research assistants Holli Stebnor, Michael Hannebique, and Sarrah Moskin who assisted in data gathering and processing. We are also grateful to Dr. Constance Hausman of Cleveland Metroparks for help in providing input and sites for evaluation. We also thank Dr. Dan Herms (The Ohio State University) for reviewing an earlier version of the manuscript. We also would like to express gratitude to two anonymous reviewers whose comments enhanced the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED Cappaert, D., D.G. McCullough, T.M. Poland, and N.W. Siegert. 2005. Emerald ash borer in North America: A research and regulatory challenge. The American Entomologist 51:152–165. Chongsuvivatwong, V. 2012. Package ‘epicalc’. Accessed 08/11/2014. Detters, A., C. Cowell, L. McKeown, and P. Howard. 2008. Evalua- tion of current rigging and dismantling practices used in arbori- culture. Research Report 668 of the Health and Safety Executive and the Forestry Commission. Norwich, England, UK. 355 pp. Epanchin-Niell, R.S., R.G. Haight, L. Berec, J.M. Kean, and A.M. Liebhold. 2012. Optimal surveillance and eradication of invasive species in heterogeneous landscapes. Ecology Letters 15:803–812. Francese, J.A., D.J. Crook, I. Fraser, D.R. Lance, A.J. Sawyer, and V.C. Mastro. 2010. Optimization of trap color for the emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis (Coleoptera: Buprestidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 103:1235−1241. Gandhi, K.J.K., and D.A. Herms, 2010. North American arthropods at risk due to widespread Fraxinus mortality caused by the alien emerald ash borer. Biological Invasions 12:1839–1846. Government Accountability Office. 2006. Invasive forest pests. Les- sons learned from three recent infestations may aid in managing future efforts. Report GAO-06-353 to the Chairman, Commit- tee on Resources, House of Representatives. Washington, D.C., U.S. 125 pp. Hauer, R.J., W. Wing, and J.O. Dawson. 1993. Ice storm damage to urban trees. Journal of Arboriculture 19:187–193. Herms, D.A., D.G. McCullough, D.R. Smitley, C. Sadof, R.C. Wil- liamson, and P.L. Nixon. 2009. Insecticide options for protecting ash trees from emerald ash borer. North Central IPM Center Bulletin (second edition). Ohio State University Extension, Wooster, Ohio, U.S. 12 pp. Kovacs, K.F., R.G. Height, D.G. McCullough, R.J. Mercader, N.W. Siegert, and A.M. Liebold. 2010. Cost of potential emerald ash borer damage in U.S. Communities, 2009–2019. Ecological Eco- nomics 69:569–578. ©2015 International Society of Arboriculture
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