290 suggest that these practices may be one explanation for the high percentage of pruning problems that were observed on trees, especially those at non-residential sites. Moreover, these management practices might also be one cause of the many abiotic problems, such as sunscald of trunk phel- lem, or the biotic problems, such as sooty canker and slime flux, both of which were commonly observed in this study. CONCLUSION Based on the studies presented in this paper, researchers con- clude that although crown condition was relatively good for the majority of trees assessed in the Phoenix metropolitan area, a diverse set of biotic and abiotic conditions associ- ated with intensive crown management has had an apparent negative impact on tree health. It is within this context that the authors propose that arborists and landscape managers in desert cities such as Phoenix implement practices to im- prove urban forest sustainability, such as 1) selecting trees with mature crown projections and rooting volumes that are compatible with above- and belowground site restrictions; 2) emphasize the training of young trees to develop site- compatible crown structures, rather than use corrective prun- ing of mature trees; and 3) utilize water-conserving irrigation technologies to optimize rates of irrigation water delivery to tree evapotranspirational demand, so as to not overly stimulate tree productivity, particularly of low-water-use or desert trees. Acknowledgments. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under grant no. DEB-0423704: CAP2 (2004-2010), Central Arizona-Phoenix Long-Term Ecological Research (CAP LTER). LITERATURE CITED Bricker, J.S., and J.C. Stutz. 2004. Phytoplasmas associated with ash de- cline. Journal of Arboriculture 30:193–199. CAP LTER (Central Arizona Long-Term Ecological Research). Accessed 07/26/2012. City of Phoenix Tree and Shade Master Plan. Accessed 04/03/2012. CTLA (Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers). 1992. Guide for Plant Appraisal, 8th Edition. International Society of Arboriculture, Champaign, Illinois, U.S. 103 pp. Cumming, A.B., M.F. Galvin, R.J. Rabaglia, J.R. Cumming, and D.B. Twardus. 2001. Forest health monitoring protocol applied to roadside trees in Maryland. Journal of Arboriculture 27:126–138. Doring, T.F., M. Pautasso, M.R. Finchkh, and M.S. Wolfe. 2012. Con- cepts of plant health: Reviewing and challenging the foundations of plant protection. Plant Pathology 61:1–15. Hope, D., C. Gries, W. Zhu, W.F. Fagan, C.L. Redman, N.B. Grimm, A.L. Nelson, C.A. Martin, and A. Kinzig. 2003. Socio-economics drive urban plant diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100(15):8788–8792. Jenerette, G.D., S.L. Harlan, A. Brazel, N. Jones, L. Larsen, and W.L. Stefanov. 2007. Regional relationships between surface temperature, vegetation, and human settlement in a rapidly urbanizing ecosystem. Landscape Ecology 22:353–365. Jenerette, G.D., S.L. Harlan, W. Stefanov, and C.A. Martin. 2011. Eco- system services and urban heat riskscape moderation: Water, green ©2013 International Society of Arboriculture Martin and Stutz: Tree Health in Phoenix, Arizona, U.S. spaces, and social inequality in Phoenix, USA. Ecological Applica- tions 21(7):2637–2651. Kalnay, E., and M. Cai. 2003. Impact of urbanization and land use change on climate. Nature 423:528–531. Kolb, T.E., M.R. Wagner, and W.W. Covington. 1994. Concepts of forest health: Utilitarian and ecosystems perspectives. Journal of Forestry 92:10–15. 99 Larson, E.K., N.B. Grimm, P. Gober, and C.L. Redman. 2005. The para- doxical ecology and management of water in the Phoenix, USA met- ropolitan area. Journal of Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology 5:287–29. MAG (Maricopa Association of Governments). Accessed 12/01/2011. Martin C.A., and L.B. Stabler. 2002. Plant gas exchange and water status in urban desert landscapes. Journal of Arid Environments 51:235–254. Martin, C.A. 2008. Landscape sustainability in a Sonoran Desert city. Cities and the Environment 1(2) Article 5:1–16. Martin, C.A., K.A. Peterson, L.B. Stabler. 2003. Residential landscaping in Phoenix, Arizona: Practices, preferences and covenants codes and restrictions (CC&Rs). Journal of Arboriculture 29:9–17. Martin, C.A., P.S. Warren, and A.P. Kinzig. 2004. Neighborhood socio- economic status is a useful predictor of perennial landscape vegetation in residential neighborhoods and embedded small parks of Phoenix, Arizona. Landscape and Urban Planning 69:355–368. McPherson, E.G. 1993 Monitoring urban forest health. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 26:165–174. Motloch, J.L. 1991. Introduction to Landscape Design. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 307 pp. Nowak, D.J., M. Kuroda, and D.E. Crane. 2004. Tree mortality rates and tree population projections in Baltimore, Maryland, USA. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 2:139–147. Olsen, M. 2001. Diseases of Urban Plants in Arizona. University of Arizona Extension Publication AZ1124. Redman, C. 1999. Human Impact on Ancient Environments. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona, U.Z. 288 pp. Stabler L.B., and C.A. Martin. 2000. Temporal and spatial patterns of air temperature and CO2 concentration in metropolitan Phoenix. Third Symposium on the Urban Environment 3:201–202. Stone, B., and M.O. Rodgers. 2001. Urban form and thermal efficiency: How the design of cities influences the urban heat island effect. Journal of the American Planning Association 67:186–198. Streets, R.B. 1969. Diseases of Cultivated Plants of the Southwest. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona, U.S. United States Census. 2010. Accessed 12/01/2011. Walker, J.S., N.B. Grimm, J.M. Briggs, C. Gries, and L. Dugan. 2009. Effects of urbanization on plant species diversity in central Arizona. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7(9):465–470. Whitney, G.G., and S.D. Adams. 1980. Man as a maker of new plant communities. Journal of Applied Ecology 17:431–448. Chris A. Martin, Ph.D. (corresponding author) Professor School of Letters and Sciences Arizona State University 6073 South Backus Mall Mesa, Arizona 85212, U.S. chris.martin@asu.edu
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