©2023 International Society of Arboriculture Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 49(2): March 2023 71 Cuthbertson AGS, Murchie AK. 2003. The impact of fungicides to control apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) on the predatory mite Anystis baccarum and its prey Aculus schlechtendali (apple rust mite) in Northern Ireland Bramley orchards. Crop Protection. 22(9):1125-1130. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261 -2194(03)00147-9 D’Addabbo T. 1995. The nematicidal effect of organic amend- ments: A review of the literature, 1982-1994. Nematologia Mediterranea. 23(2):299-305. https://journals.flvc.org/ nemamedi/article/view/63272/0 Deising HB, Reimann S, Pascholati SF. 2008. Mechanisms and significance of fungicide resistance. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 39(2):286-295. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1517 -838220080002000017 El Hadrami A, Adam LR, El Hadrami I, Daayf F. 2010. Chitosan in plant protection. Marine Drugs. 8(4):968-987. https://doi .org/10.3390/md8040968 Escudero N, Lopez-Moya F, Ghahremani Z, Zavala-Gonzalez EA, Alaguero-Cordovilla A, Ros-Ibañez C, Lacasa A, Sorribas FJ, Lopez-Llorca LV. 2017. Chitosan increases tomato root colo- nization by Pochonia chlamydosporia and their combination reduces root-knot nematode damage. Frontiers in Plant Science. 8:1-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.01415 Hailey LE, Percival GC. 2014. Comparative assessment of phosphite formulations for apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) control. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry. 40(4):237-243. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2014.024 Ilhan K, Arslan U, Karabulut OA. 2006. The effect of sodium bicarbonate alone or in combination with a reduced dose of tebuconazole on the control of apple scab. Crop Protection. 25(9):963-967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2006.01.002 Jørgensen LN, Thygesen K. 2006. Fungicide resistance and its impact on recommendations to farmers—Experiences from Denmark. Aspects of Applied Biology. 78:65-70. Kuchitsu K, Kikuyama M, Shibuya N. 1993. N-Acetylchitooli- gosaccharides, biotic elicitor for phytoalexin production, induce transient membrane depolarization in suspension-cultured rice cells. Protoplasma. 174:79-81. https://doi.org/10.1007/ BF01404046 Kulikov SN, Chirkov SN, Il’ina AV, Lopatin SA, Varlamov VP. 2006. Effect of the molecular weight of chitosan on its antiviral activity in plants. Prikl Biokhim Mikrobiol. 42(2):224-228. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0003683806020165 Laflamme P, Benhamou N, Bussiéres G, Dessureault M. 2000. Differential effect of chitosan on root rot fungal pathogens in forest nurseries. Canadian Journal of Botany. 77(10):1460- 1468. https://doi.org/10.1139/b99-111 Lafontaine PJ, Benhamou N. 1996. Chitosan treatment: An emerg- ing strategy for enhancing resistance of greenhouse tomato plants to infection by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. radicis- lycopersici. Biocontrol Science and Technology. 6(1):111-124. https://doi.org/10.1080/09583159650039575 Lainsbury MA. 2020. The UK pesticide guide 2020. 33rd Ed. Cambridge (UK): British Crop Protection Council. 721 p. https://ukpesticideguide.co.uk Li K, Xing R, Liu S, Li P. 2020. Chitin and chitosan fragments responsible for plant elicitor and growth stimulator. Journal resulting in the alteration of rhizosphere microbial equilibrium, thus disadvantaging any soil-borne plant pathogens (Bell et al. 1998; Murphy et al. 2000; Sharif et al. 2018). Furthermore, chitosan bio-fertilisers are available commercially from different manufacturers worldwide. Soil amendments are simple and rela- tively inexpensive to perform and allow for the direct delivery of a proportionate quantity of chitin and chi- tosan to a tree. Amendments can be applied at the time of planting or through the use of vertical mulching, air-spading, or radial trenching around established trees. Providing the correct amount of chitin and chi- tosan are applied, results of this study indicate that chitin/chitosan fertilisers induce positive plant growth effects, i.e., enhanced leaf chlorophyll content and fruit yield. Additional advantages of soil applications are that they are discrete and there is no spray drift— important considerations when applying plant protec- tion agents to trees located in densely populated urban landscapes. In conclusion, the results of this study provide evi- dence that chitin and chitosan applied at 1.0% possess efficacious properties against apple and pear scab when applied as soil amendments and demonstrate potential as a method of disease management or as a component of integrative pest management under field conditions. Care should be taken when selecting a chitin- or chitosan-based fertiliser, as efficacy can dif- fer markedly between products. LITERATURE CITED Aćimović SG, VanWoerkom AH, Garavaglia T, Vandervoort C, Sundin GW, Wise JC. 2016. Seasonal and cross-seasonal timing of fungicide trunk injections in apple trees to optimize management of apple scab. Plant Disease. 100(8):1606-1616. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-09-15-1061-RE Banks JM. 2017. Continuous excitation chlorophyll fluorescence parameters: A review for practitioners. Tree Physiology. 37(8):1128-1136. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpx059 Bell AA, Hubbard JC, Liu L, Davis RM, Subbarao KV. 1998. Effects of chitin and chitosan on the incidence and severity of Fusarium yellows of celery. Plant Disease. 82(3):322-328. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1998.82.3.322 Benhamou N, Lafontaine PJ, Nicole M. 1994. Induction of sys- temic resistance to Fusarium crown and root rot in tomato plants by seed treatment with chitosan. Phytopathology. 84:1432- 1444. https://doi.org/10.1094/Phyto-84-1432 Bevan J, Knight S. 2001. Organic apple production. 1st Ed. Kenilworth (UK): HDRA, Emmerson Press. 36 p. Butt DJ, Swait AA, Robinson JD. 1990. Evaluation of fungicides against apple powdery mildew and scab. Annals of Applied Biology. 116(11):34-35.
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