218 Persad et al: Effect of EAB on the Material Properties of Ash Trees Stresses in Eucalyptus nitens Plantation Trees. Annals of For- est Science 70:801–811. Clair, B., J. Ruelle, J. Beauchene, M.F. Prevost, and M. Fournier. 2006. Tension Wood and Opposite Wood in 21 Tropical Rain Forest Species. IAWA Journal 27:329–338. Dahle, G. 2017. Influence of bark on the mapping of mechanical strain using digital image correlation. Wood Science and Technology 51:1469–1477. Dahle, G., A. Carpenter, and D. DeVallance. 2016. Non-destruc- tive measurement of the modulus of elasticity of wood using acoustical stress waves. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 42(4):227–233. Dahle, G.A., and J.C. Grabosky. 2012. Determining if lateral imbalance exists in first-order branches leading to a potential development of torsional stress. Arboriculture & Urban For- estry 38:141–145. Figure 6. Percent decay of larger roots (> 5 mm) observed in root balls of three groups of ash trees infested with EAB at site two. Percentage decay in the root balls was significantly different in all groups, with group I trees having the least decay and group III having the highest percentage decay. sized trees. Fine root analyses of the root zone areas (site two) revealed that the Nm /Bm /Bm significantly different between all groups, with group III trees having highest Nm fine root ratios were ratios and group I trees having the lowest. In an evaluation of decay in extracted root balls (site two), group III trees had sig- nificantly higher percentage surface area that was decayed compared to groups I and II, which had sta- tistically similar decay incidence. The loss of carbo- hydrate resources to root tissue with increasing canopy loss may be a factor in the root necromass and decay incidence observed. These data provide funda- mental insight into material properties of ash trees after infestation by EAB and can contribute to arbori- cultural guidelines for ash tree preservation and help develop safety protocols to address structural loss in trees after EAB infestation. LITERATURE CITED Armstrong, J.P., D.W. Patterson, and J.E. Sneckenberger. 1991. Comparison of three equations for predicting stress wave velocity as a function of grain angle. Wood and Fiber Science 23(1):32–43. Brudi, E., and P. Van Wassenaer. 2002. Trees and Statistics: Non- destructive Failure Analysis. In E.T. Smiley and K.D. Coder (Eds.). Tree Structure and Mechanics Conference Proceed- ings: How Trees Stand Up and Fall Down. 53–69. Cappaert, D., D.G. McCullough, T.M. Poland, N.W. and Siegert. 2005. Emerald ash borer in North America: a research and regulatory challenge. American Entomologist 51:152–165. Clair, B., J. Alteyrac, A. Gronvold, J. Espejo, B. Chanson, T. Almeras. 2013. Patterns of Longitudinal and Tangential Maturation ©2019 International Society of Arboriculture Dahle, G.A., J. Grabosky, B. Kane, J. Miesbauer, W. Peterson, F.W. Telewski, A. Koeser, and G.W. Watson. 2014. Tree bio- mechanics: a white paper from the 2010 international meeting and research summit at the Morton Arboretum (Lisile, Illi- nois, U.S.). Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 40:309–318. Dahle, G.A., K.R. James, B. Kane, J.C. Grabosky, and A. Detter. 2017. A review of factors that affect the static load-bearing capacity of urban trees. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 43:89–106. Fontaine, S., A. Mariotti, and L. Abbadie. 2003. The priming effect of organic matter: a question of microbial competition? Soil Biology and Biochemistry 35(6):837–843. Hauer, R.J. 2012. Emerald ash borer economics, management approaches, and decision making. Tree Care Industry 23(8):14–17. Hauer, R.J., and W.D. Peterson. 2016. Effects of emerald ash borer on municipal forestry budgets. Landscape and Urban Planning. 157:98–105. James, K.R., and B. Kane. 2008. Precision Digital Instruments to Measure Dynamic Wind Loads on Trees During Storms. Agricultural and Forestry Meteorology 148:1055–1061. James, K.R., J.R. Moore, D. Slater, and G.A. Dahle. 2018. Tree Biomechanics. CAB Reviews. doi 10.1079/ PAVSNNR201712038. Kane, B., and P. Clouston. 2008. Tree Pulling Tests of Large Shade Trees in the Genus Acer. Arboriculture and Urban For- estry 34:101–109. Kovacs, K.F., R.D. Haight, D.G. McCullough, R.J. Mercader, N.A. Seigert, and A.M. Liebhold. 2010. Cost of potential emerald ash borer damage in U.S communities, 2009-2019. Ecological Economics 69(3):569–578. Marshall, J.D., and R.H. Waring. 1985. Predicting fine root pro- duction and turnover by monitoring root starch and soil tem- perature. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 15(5):791–800. Mattheck, C.G., and K.A. Bethge. 1993. Detection of decay in trees with the Metriguard stress wave timer. Journal of Arbo- riculture 19(6):374–378. Oscarsson, J., A. Olsson, and B. Enquist. 2012. Strain Fields Around Knots in Norway Spruce Specimens Exposed to Ten- sile Forces. Wood Science and Technology 46:593–610.
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