354 Olson et al: Neonicotinoid Applications for Emerald Ash Borer Suppression were translocated to foliar tissue, regardless of the rate of application (full or half rate). Residual concentra- tions present in plant tissue 5 weeks post-application did not differ between doses. Additionally, insecti- cides applied at the half rate effectively reduced lar- val EAB phloem consumption relative to untreated controls (Figure 2 and Table 3). These findings sug- gest that, for trees of the size used in this experiment, reduced rates of neonicotinoids may be efficacious as a management strategy for EAB, may reduce the risk of nontarget concerns, and may allow more trees to be treated in a given area. Clearly more research is warranted. Landscape managers, tree care specialists, and homeowners utilizing these products as compo- nents of an EAB management plan could reduce costs, minimize environmental exposure, and poten- tially reduce unwanted collateral damage by reducing insecticide application rates. These findings can assist land managers in making more informed decisions about ash protection as the emerald ash borer contin- ues to devastate urban forests and landscape plants in North America. LITERATURE CITED Ahern RG, Frank SD, Raupp MJ. 2005. Comparison of exclusion and imidacloprid for reduction of oviposition damage to young trees by periodical cicadas. Journal of Economic Entomology. 98:2133-2136. Benton E, Grant J, Cowles R, Webster J, Nichols R, Lagalante A, Coots C. 2016. Assessing relationships between tree diameter and long-term persistence of imidacloprid and olefin to opti- mize imidacloprid treatments on eastern hemlock. Forest Ecology and Management. 370:12-21. Campbell JJ. 1989. Historical evidence of forest composition in the Bluegrass region of Kentucky. In: Rink G, Budelsky C, editors. Proceedings of the 7th central hardwood forest con- ference; 5–8 March 1989; Carbondale, IL, USA. St. Paul (MN, USA): USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. General Technical Report NC-135. p. 231-246. Cappaert D, McCullough DG, Poland TM, Siegert NW. 2005. Emerald ash borer in North America: a research and regulatory challenge. American Entomologist. 51:152-163. Cimino AM, Boyles AL, Thayer KA, Perry MJ. 2017. Effects of neonicotinoid pesticide exposure on human health: a system- atic review. Environmental Health Perspectives. 125:155-162. Coots C, Lambdin P, Grant J, Rhea R. 2013. Spatial and temporal distribution of residues of imidacloprid and its insecticidal 5-hydroxy and olefin and metabolites in eastern hemlock (Pinales: Pinaceae) in the southern Appalachians. Journal of Economic Entomology. 106:2399-2406. Copping L. 2013. Bees and neonicotinoids: the story continues. Outlooks on Pest Management. 24:109-119. Cowles RS. 2009. Optimizing dosage and preventing leaching of imidacloprid for management of hemlock woolly adelgid in forests. Forest Ecology and Management. 257:1026-1033. Davidson W, Rieske LK. 2016. Establishment of classical bio- logical control targeting emerald ash borer is facilitated by use of insecticides with little effect on native arthropod com- munities. Biological Control. 101:78-86. Duan JJ, Bauer LS, Abell KJ, Lelito JP, Van Driesche R. 2013. Establishment and abundance of Tetrastichus planipennisi (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in Michigan: potential for success in classical biological control of invasive emerald ash borer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae). Journal of Economic Entomology. 106:1145-1154. Duan JJ, Bauer LS, Abell KJ, Van Driesche R. 2012. Population responses of hymenopteran parasitoids to the emerald ash borer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) in recently invaded areas in north central United States. Biocontrol. 57:199-209. Duan JJ, Oppel CB, Ulyshen MD, Bauer LS, Lelito J. 2011. Biology and life history of Tetrastichus planipennisi (Hyme- noptera: Eulophidae), a larval endoparasitoid of the emerald ash borer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae). The Florida Entomolo- gist. 94:933-940. Eisenback BM, Salom SM, Kok LT, Lagalante AF. 2014. Impacts of trunk and soil injections of low rates of imidaclo- prid on hemlock woolly adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae) and eastern hemlock (Pinales: Pinaceae) health. Journal of Eco- nomic Entomology. 107:250-258. Elbert A, Haas M, Springer B, Thielert W, Nauen R. 2008. Applied aspects of neonicotinoid uses in crop protection. Pest Management Science. 64:1099-1105. EPA. 2004. Pesticides fact sheet for dinotefuran. Washington (DC, USA): Environmental Protection Agency, National Ser- vice Center for Environmental Publications. [Accessed 2019 August]. https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/P100BIDI.PDF ?Dockey=P100BIDI.pdf Faulkenberry MS, Culin JD, Jeffers SN, Riley MB, Bridges WC. 2012. Efficacy of imidacloprid and dinotefuran applied as soil drenches or trunk sprays for managing Adelges tsugae (Hemiptera: Adelgidae) on mature hemlock trees in a forest. Journal of Entomological Science. 47:369-374. Godfray HCJ, Blacquière G, Field LM, Hails RS, Petrokofsky G, Potts SG, Raine NE, Vanbergen AJ, McLean AR. 2014. A restatement of the natural science evidence base concerning neonicotinoid insecticides and insect pollinators. Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 281:20140558. Goulson D. 2013. An overview of the environmental risks posed by neonicotinoid insecticides. Journal of Applied Ecology. 50:977-987. Graziosi I, Rieske LK. 2017. The battle plan: defining a strategy to manage the emerald ash borer in Kentucky forests. Kentucky Woodlands Magazine. 11:21-22. Harrell M. 2006. Imidacloprid concentrations in green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) following treatments with two trunk-injection methods. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry. 32:126-129. Herms DA, McCullough DG. 2014. Emerald ash borer invasion of North America: history, biology, ecology, impacts, and management. Annual Review of Entomology. 59:13-30. ©2020 International Society of Arboriculture
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