Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 40(4): July 2014 biology naturally. Improving soil conditions is preferred over addition of compost teas, bios- timulants, mycorrhizal fungi, and other means. One of the most important soil functions is to serve as a medium for root growth. Physical, chemical, and biological soil characteristics all have an effect on tree roots. A thorough under- standing of how these soil characteristics affect root growth is necessary to properly manage soils for optimum root growth. Although most urban soils are substantially altered from the natural state, or even completely manufactured, urban soils must still provide the necessary resources for root growth. Highly disturbed soils require very careful management to maintain conditions favor- able for root growth. Management practices aimed at preventing soil damage or restoring aspects of the natural soil environment have the strongest research to support their effectiveness in improv- ing root growth in urban and suburban settings. Acknowledgements. We would like to thank the International Society of Arboriculture and the ISA Science and Research Com- mittee for funding this literature review. LITERATURE CITED Abbey, T., and T. Rathier. 2005. Effects of mycorrhizal fungi, bio- stimulants, and water absorbing polymers on the growth and survival of four landscape plant species. Journal of Environmen- tal Horticulture 23:108–111. Abercrombie, R.A. 1990. Root distribution of avocado trees on a sandy loam soil as affected by soil compaction. Acta Horticul- turae 275:505–512. Abrisqueta, J.M., O. Mounzer, S. Alvarez, W. Conejero, Y. Garcia- Orellana, L.M. Tapia, J. Vera, I. Abrisqueta, and M.C. Ruiz- Sanchez. 2008. Root dynamics of peach trees submitted to partial rootzone drying and continuous deficit irrigation. Agricultural Water Management 95:959–967. Alberty, C.A., H.M. Pellett, and D.H. Taylor. 1984. Characteriza- tion of soil compaction at construction sites and woody plant response. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 2:48–53. American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1992. ASAE Standard: S313.2 Appleton, B., J. Koci, S. French, M. Lestyan, and R. Harris. 2003. Mycorrhizal fungal inoculation of established street trees. Journal of Arboriculture 29:107–110. Armstrong, W., and D.J. Read. 1972. Some observations on oxygen transport in conifer seedlings. New Phytologist 71:55–62. Armstrong, W., and M.C. Drew. 2002. Root growth and metabolism under oxygen deficiency. pp. 729–761. In: Waisel, Y., A. Eshel, and U. Kafkafi (Eds.). Plant Roots: The Hidden Half (third edi- tion). Marcel Dekker, New York, New York, U.S. Arnold, M.A., and G.V. McDonald. 2009. Groundcovers, organic and inorganic mulches, and masonry surfaces differentially 207 affect establishment and root zone characteristics of urban trees. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 35:232–240. Arnold, M.A., G.V. McDonald, and D.L. Bryan. 2005. Planting depth and mulch thickness affect establishment of green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) and bougainvillea goldenraintree (Koelreuteria bipinnata). Journal of Arboriculture 31:163–170. Ball, B.C., and M.F. O’Sullivan. 1982. Soil strength and crop emer- gence in direct drilled and ploughed cereal beds in seven field experiments. Journal of Soil Science 33:609–622. Barnes, S., and G.C. Percival. 2006. Influence of biostimulants and water-retaining polymer root dips on survival and growth of newly transplanted bare-rooted silver birch and rowan. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 24:173–179. Barnett, D. 1986. Root growth and water use by newly transplanted woody landscape plants. The Public Garden, April 23–25. Baver, L.D., W.H. Gardner, and W.R. Gardner. 1972. Soil Physics (fourth edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York City, New York, U.S. 498 pp. Bechenbach, J., and J.H. Gourley. 1932. Some effects of different cultural methods upon root distribution of apple trees. Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science 29:202–204. Beeson, R.C., and K.G. Keller. 2001. Yard waste compost as a land- scape soil amendment for azaleas. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 19:222–225. Bell, D.T., and E.L. Johnson. 1974. Flood-caused tree mortality around Illinois reservoirs. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science. 67:28–37. Bengough, A.G., and C.E. Mullins. 1990. Mechanical impedance to root growth: A review of experimental techniques and root growth responses. Journal of Soil Science 41:341–358. Bennie, A.T.P. 1991. Growth and mechanical impedance. pp. 393– 414. In: Y. Waisel, A. Eshel, and U. Kafkafi (Eds.). Plant Roots: The Hidden Half (third edition). Marcel Dekker, New York City, New York, U.S. Benson, D.M. 1986. Relationship of soil temperature and moisture to development of Phytophthora root rot of azalea. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 4:112–115. Benson, D.M., H.D. Shew, and R.K. Jones. 1982. Effects of raised and ground-level beds and pine bark on survival of azalea and population dynamics of Phytophthora cinnamomi. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 4:278–280. Berrang, P., D.F. Karnosky, and B.J. Stanton. 1985. Environmental factors affecting tree health in New York City. Journal of Arbo- riculture 11:185–189. Bevington, K.B., and W.S. Castle. 1985. Annual root growth pattern of young citrus trees in relation to shoot growth, soil tempera- ture and soil water. Journal of American Society of Horticultural Science 110:840–845. Bigras, F.J., and D. Dumais. 2005. Root-freezing damage in the con- tainerized nursery: Impact on plantation sites: A review. New Forests 30:167–184. Bigras, F.J., and H.A. Margolis. 1996. Shoot and root sensitivity of containerized black spruce, white spruce and jack pine seedlings to late fall freezing. New Forests 13:29–49. Bilan, M.V. 1974. Relationship between needle moisture and root growth in loblolly pine seedlings. Ecology and Physiology of Root Growth. pp. 219–222. In: G. Hoffmann (Ed.). II Interna- tional Symposium Ecology and Physiology of Root Growth. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. ©2014 International Society of Arboriculture
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