Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 44(6): November 2018 about what those new directions can be in order to bring more community members to projects. Additionally, it is anecdotally known by many who run volunteer programs, and was thus identified in the current data, that individuals’ desire to partici- pate in stewardship did not have any relationship to commitment of frequent or regular participation. Therefore, program managers could consider creat- ing multiple opportunities for community members to engage in projects with varying levels of neces- sary commitment. In this, having one-off or shorter engagement opportunities for people who may want to contribute but not commit to regular participation, and a longer term and sustained protocol for engage- ment for those individuals who come to these types of projects for community. From prior literature investigating civic-science participation, engaging individuals in one-off or low-commitment experi- ences can translate to sustained participation in proj- ects over time (Everett and Geoghagen 2016). While project leaders will need to judge what is appropri- ate and feasible given each project’s constraints (e.g., funding, staffing, time), these opportunities to engage the public in environmental restoration are neces- sary for long-term success, and further research is needed to help practitioners develop programs and materials in a more nuanced and informed way. Acknowledgments. The authors would like to thank J. Epiphan for her work and help on this project and D. Betz for his thought- ful comments and edits to this manuscript. We also thank S. Handel and C. Kaunzinger for development of the restoration design. All human subjects work was done with approval from Rutgers University IRB (#16-699), and park sampling approved by NYC Parks. This research was supported by the U.S. Forest Service, the Rutgers University Center for Resilient Landscapes, NYC Parks, and the U.S. National Park Service. LITERATURE CITED Bandura, A. 1997. Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control. Worth Publishers, Macmillan Publishers, New York, New York, U.S. 604 pp. Bandura, A. 2000. Exercise of human agency through collective ef- ficacy. Current Directions in Psychological Science 9(3):75–78. Bäckstrand, K. 2003. Civic science for sustainability: Reframing the role of experts, policy-makers and citizens in environmental governance. Global Environmental Politics 3(4):24–41. Barr, S. 2004. Are we all environmentalists now? Rhetoric and real- ity in environmental action. Geoforum 35(2):231–249. Benayas, J.M.R., A.C. Newton, A. Diaz, and J.M. Bullock. 2009. En- hancement of biodiversity and ecosystem services by ecological restoration: A meta-analysis. Science 325(5944):1121–1124. Bixler, R.D., C.L. Carlisle, W.E. Hammltt, and M.F. Floyd. 1994. Observed fears and discomforts among urban students on field 277 trips to wildland areas. The Journal of Environmental Education 26:24–33. Blanco, H., M. Alberti, A. Forsyth, K.J. Krizek, D.A. Rodriguez, and E. Talen, et al. 2009. Hot, congested, crowded, and diverse: Emerging research agendas in planning. Progress in Planning 71(4):153–205. Byrne, J., and J. Wolch. 2009. Nature, race, and parks: Past research and future directions for geographic research. Progress in Human Geography 33:743–65. Campbell, L.K., E.S. Svendsen, N.F. Sonti, and M.L. Johnson. 2016. A social assessment of urban parkland: Analyzing park use and meaning to inform management and resilience planning. Envi- ronmental Science & Policy 62:34–44. Chambon, V., N. Sidarus, and P. Haggard. 2014. From action intentions to action effects: How does the sense of agency come about? Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 8:320. Ching-hua, H., V. Sasidharan, W. Elmendorf, and F.K. Willits. 2005. 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NYC Borough Demographics. Accessed 12 De- cember 2017. Davis, M.A., and L.B. Slobodkin. 2004. The science and value of restoration ecology. Restoration Ecology 12(1):1–3. Dolan, R.W., K.A. Harris, and M. Adler. 2015. Community in- volvement to address a long-standing invasive species problem: Aspects of civic ecology in practice. Ecological Restoration 33(3):316–325. Dresner, M., C. Handelman, S. Braun, and G. Rollwagen-Bollens. 2015. Environmental identity, pro-environmental behaviors, and civic engagement of volunteer stewards in Portland area parks. Environmental Education Research 21(7):991–1010. Elith, J., J.R. Leathwick, and T. Hastie. 2008. A working guide to boosted regression trees. Journal of Animal Ecology 77(4):802–813. Everett, G., and H. Geoghegan. 2016. Initiating and continuing par- ticipation in citizen science for natural history. BMC ecology 16(1):13. Finney, C. 2014. Black faces white spaces: Reimagining the Rela- tionship of African Americans to the Great Outdoors. UNC Press Books, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S. 194 pp. Fisher, D.R., E.S. Svendsen, and J.J.T. Connolly. 2015. Urban en- vironmental stewardship and civic engagement: how planting ©2018 International Society of Arboriculture
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