Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 34(3): May 2008 freezing by some authors, increase plant freezing tolerance by others, and neither decrease nor increase freezing tolerance (Pro- ebstring 1961; Pellet and White 1969; Raesse 1997; Dehaynes et al. 1998; Smiley and Shirazi 2000). Further research is required to elucidate the influence of the anion attached to the calcium ion in influencing freezing and salinity tolerance of plants. In conclusion, treatments with calcium sprays were associated with increased freezing and salinity hardiness to varying degrees in twig, leaf, and root tissue of apple and evergreen oak. The positive results for freezing and salt tolerance in these experi- ments should be considered noteworthy for individuals involved in tree management in areas subject to subzero temperature fluc- tuations and/or concomitant applications of deicing salts in the form of sodium chloride. However, although the hardiness gain of approximately 0.4°Cto4.3°C (0.72°Fto7.7°F) reported in this study may prove important for saving trees in some circum- stances, the degree of protection conferred may not be sufficient during extreme winter-injury years (Raese 1997). Acknowledgments. We are grateful for funding from the TREE Fund (John Z. Dul- ing). Helpful comments from Dr. Tom Smiley, Bartlett Tree Research Laboratory, Charlotte, North Carolina, are also appreci- ated. LITERATURE CITED Akhavankharazian, M., W.F. Campbell, J.J. Jurinak, and L.M. Dudley. 1991. Calcium amelioration of NaCl effects on plant growth, chlo- rophyll and ion concentration in Phaseolus vulgaris. Arid Soil Re- search and Rehabilitation 5:9–19. Anderson, J.L., and W.F. Campbell. 1995. Calcium transport and ATPase activity in microsomal vesicle fraction from ‘Montmorency’ sour cherry fruit. Acta Horticulturae 398:47–57. Anon. 2007. Cold wave may cost California’s citrus industry $1 billion. International Herald Tribune, Bloomberg News, The Associated Press. January 18. 16 pp. Berbezy, P., L. Legendre, and A. Maujean. 1996. Purification and char- acterisation of alpha-amylase from vine shoot inter-nodes. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 34:353–361. Cameron, R.W.F., and G.R. Dixon. 2000. The influence of temperature, daylength and calendar date on cold tolerance Rhododendron. The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology 75:481–487. Cannel, M.G.R., and R.I. Smith. 1986. Climatic warming, spring bud- burst and frost damage on trees. Journal of Applied Ecology 23: 177–191. Dehaynes, D.H., M.A. Ingle, and C.E. White. 1998. Nitrogen fertiliza- tion enhances cold tolerance of red spruce seedlings. Canadian Jour- nal of Forestry Research 19:1037–1043. Delauney, A.J., and D.P.S. Verma. 1993. Proline biosynthesis and os- moregulation in plants. The Plant Journal 4:215–223. Dell, B., and N. Malajczuk. 1994. Boron deficiency in eucalypt planta- tions in China. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 24:2409–2416. Dobson, M.C. 1991. De-icing Salt Damage to Trees and Shrubs. For- estry Commission Bulletin 101. Greaves, J.A., and J.M. Wilson. 1987. Chlorophyll fluorescence analy- sis—An aid to plant breeders. Biologist (Columbus, Ohio) 34: 209–214. Kozlowski, T.T., P.J. Kramer, and S.G. Pallardy. 1991. The Physiologi- cal Ecology of Woody Plants. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. Legge, R.L., E. Thompson, J.E. Baker, and M. Lieberman. 1982. The effect of calcium on the fluidity and phase properties of microsomal membranes isolated from post climacteric Golden Delicious apples. Plant and Cell Physiology 23:161–169. 197 Levene, H. 1960. Robust tests for equality of variances. In Olkin, I., S.G. Ghurye, W. Hoeffding, W.G. Madow, and H.B. Mann (Eds.). Con- tributions to Probability and Statistics. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. Lu, C., and B. Huang. 2003. Effects of boron on membrane lipid per- oxidation and endogenous protective systems in leaves of Eucalyptus grandis × Eucalyptus urophylla under low temperature. Journal of Tropical and Subtropical Botany 11:217–222. McKay, H. 1992. Electrolyte leakage from fine roots of conifer seed- lings: A rapid index of plant vitality following cold storage. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research 22:1371–1377. ———. 1994. Frost hardiness and cold-storage tolerance of the root system of Picea sitchensis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Larix kaempferi and Pinus sylvestris bare-root seedlings. Scandinavian Journal of For- estry Research 9:203–213. Meinander, O., S. Somersalo, T. Holopainen, and R.J. Strasser. 1996. Scots Pine after exposure to elevated ozone and carbon dioxide probed by reflectance spectra and chlorophyll a fluorescence tran- sients. Journal of Plant Physiology 148:229–236. Monroy, A.F., F. Sarhan, and R.S. Dhindsa. 1993. Cold-induced changes in freezing tolerance, protein phosphorylation, and gene ex- pression. Plant Physiology 102:1227–1235. Nicholas, A.H., R. Spooner-Hart, and R.A. Vickers. 2003. Control of woolly aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann) (Hemiptera: Pem- phigidae) on mature apple trees using insecticide soil-root drenches. Australian Journal of Entomology 42:6–11. Palta, J.P. 1996. Role of calcium in plant responses to stresses: Linking basic research to the solution of practical problems. HortScience 31:51–57. Palta, J.P., and P.H. Li. 1980. Alterations in membrane transport prop- erties by freezing injury in herbaceous plants. Evidence against rup- ture theory. Physiologia Plantarum 50:169–175. Pellet, N.E., and D.B. White. 1969. Effects of soil nitrogen and soil moisture levels on cold acclimation of container grown Juniperus chinensis ‘Hetsi’. Journal of the Americian Society of Horticultural Science. 94:457–459. Pellett, H. 1971. Comparison of cold hardiness levels of root and stem tissue. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 22:1371–1377. Percival, G.C., and S. Barnes. 2005. Auxins and water-retaining polymer root dips affect survival and growth of newly transplanted bare- rooted European beech and silver birch. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 22:183–189. Percival, G.C., C. Boyle, and L. Baird. 1999. The influence of calcium supplementation on the freezing tolerance of woody plants. Journal of Arboriculture 25:285–291. Percival, G.C., G.A. Fraser, and G. Oxenham. 2003. Foliar salt tolerance of Acer genotypes using chlorophyll fluorescence. Journal of Arbor- iculture 29:61–66. Percival, G.C., and A. Galloway. 1999. The potential of chlorophyll fluorescence measurements to detect salt and waterlogging stress in urban trees. Acta Horticulturae 496:253–259. Percival, G.C., and J. Hitchmough. 1995. Tree establishment and per- formance in a cool growing season arboretum. Arboricultural Journal 19:357–371. Proebstring, E.L. 1961. Cold hardiness of Elberta peach fruit buds as influenced by nitrogen level and cover crop. Proceedings of the American Society of Horticultural Science 77:97–106. Raese, J.T. 1996. Winter hardiness increased with calcium treatments. Good Fruit Grower 47:41–48. ———. 1997. Cold tolerance, yield and fruit quality of d’Anjou pears influenced by nitrogen fertilizer rates and time of application. Journal of Plant Nutrition 20:1007–1025. Randrup, T.B., E.G. McPherson, and L.R. Costello. 2001. A review of tree conflicts with sidewalks, curbs and roads. Urban Ecosystems 5:209–225. Sakai, A., and W. Larcher. 1987. Frost Survival of Plants. Responses and Adaptations to Freezing Stress. Springer-Verlag, London, UK. ©2008 International Society of Arboriculture
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