Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 42(2): March 2016 to the surface (Danjon et al. 2005). Deep roots are rare in Acer rubrum (Lyford and Wilson 1964). The data presented show that root deflections by container walls can influence root architecture at an early age, and some of these can remain with the tree for at least five years (Table 2). The container- induced imprint was significantly reduced (Table 3), and anchorage to landscape soil increased (Table 6), by shaving root balls during nursery production. Differences in imprint among con- tainer types (Table 2) were not related to anchor- age, but deflected roots comprising the imprint could impact health, or anchorage, later. The long- term implications from differences in imprint rating among container types for trees planted from #3 and #15 containers (Table 2) remains unknown; longer-term studies will be needed to address this question. However, arborists report (pers. comm. and obs.) trees of the genus Acer are prone to developing roots that grow tangent to the trunk that can eventually form stem-girdling roots. Data presented in the current and past studies show that nursery production practices can influence formation of some of these roots. CONCLUSIONS Shaving the root ball periphery when shiſting a container-grown nursery tree to the next larger container size had a greater impact on root sys- tem architecture and post-planting anchorage than did type of container. Root system architecture in the nursery container impacted architecture up to five years aſter planting into the landscape. Roots with architecture considered defective (i.e., sharply turned roots in a circling or downward direc- tion) retained that defect several years aſter plant- ing. However, the current data and cited literature mostly showed that Acer rubrum root architecture differences among container types when plant- ed into the landscape did not appear to persist. Acknowledgments. This project was supported by The Cool Ring™ Com- pany, Lakeland, Florida, U.S.; Fanntum Products, Inc., Statesville, North Caro- lina, U.S.; Florida Nursery Growers and Landscape Association, Orlando, Florida, U.S.; Horticultural Research Institute, Washington, D.C.; Legacy Nursery Products, LLC, Palm City, Florida, U.S.; Root Control, Inc., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, U.S.; and Nursery Supplies, Inc., Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, U.S. LITERATURE CITED Anonymous. 2014. American Standard for Nursery Stock. Ameri- can Nursery Association, Washington, D.C. Anonymous. 2015. Florida Grades and Standards for Nursery Plants. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Ser- vices, Div. of Plant Industry, Gainesville, Florida, U.S. Arnold, M.A. 1996. Mechanical correction and chemical avoid- ance of circling roots differentially affect post-transplant root regeneration and field establishment of container-grown Shu- mard oak. Journal American Society for Horticultural Science 121:258–263. Arnold, M.A., and D.K. Struve. 1989. Growing green ash and red oak in CuCO3 -treated containers increases root regeneration and shoot growth following transplant. Journal American Soci- ety for Horticultural Science 114:402–406. Balisky, A.C., P. Salonius, C. Walli, and D. Brinkman. 1995. Seed- ling roots and forest floor: Misplaced and neglected aspects of British Columbia’s reforestation effort? Forestry Chronicle 71:59–65. Beeson, R.C., Jr., and R. Newton. 1992. Shoot and root responses of eighteen southeastern woody landscape species grown in cupric hydroxide-treated containers. Journal of Environmental Horti- culture 10:214–217. Blanusa, T., E. Papadogiannakis, R. Tanner, and R.W.F. Cameron. 2007. Root pruning as a means to encourage root growth in two ornamental shrubs, Buddleja davidii ‘Summer Beauty’ and Cistus ‘Snow Fire’. Journal Horticultural Sciences and Biotechnology 82:521–528. Danjon, F., T. Fourcaud, and D. Bert. 2005. Root architecture and wind-firmness of mature Pinus piaster. New Phytologist 168:387–400. Gilman, E.F. 2001. Effect of nursery production method, irrigation, and inoculation with mycorrhizae-forming fungi on establish- ment of Quercus virginiana. Journal of Arboriculture 27: 30–39. Gilman, E.F., and C. Harchick. 2014. Root system morphology influences lateral stability of Swietenia mahagoni. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 40:27–35. Gilman, E.F., and C. Wiese. 2012. Root pruning at planting and planting depth in the nursery impact root system morphology and anchorage. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 38:229–236. Gilman, E.F., and M. E. Kane. 1990. Root growth of red maple fol- lowing planting from containers. HortScience 25:527–528. Gilman, E.F., and M. Orfanedes. 2012. Root pruning and planting depth impact root morphology in containers. Journal of Envi- ronmental Horticulture 30:173–181. Gilman, E.F., and M. Paz. 2014. Root system morphology influ- enced by container design, retention time, and root pruning. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 40:16–26. Gilman, E.F., C. Harchick, and M. Paz. 2010a. Effect of container type on root form and growth of red maple. Journal of Environ- mental Horticulture. 28:1–7. Gilman, E.F., J. Grabosky, A. Stodola, and M. Marshall. 2003. Irrigation and container type impact red maple (Acer rubrum L.) five years aſter landscape planting. Journal of Arboriculture 29:231–236. Gilman, E.F., J. Miesbauer, C. Harchick, and R.C. Beeson. 2013. Impact of tree size at planting, mulch and irrigation on Acer ru- brum L. growth and anchorage. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 39:173–181. 81 ©2016 International Society of Arboriculture
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