258 McWilliam et al.: Degradation Effects of Local Residents on Urban Forests ment behaviors is determined by the distance from for- est borders (P < 0.05). However, the distribution of forest recreation-related encroachments did not appear to be signifi- cantly determined by the distance from forest borders (P > 0.05). Yard extension, followed by reaction to forest en- croachment and invasive yard plants, were concen- trated closer to forest borders than waste dispos- al and forest recreation encroachments (Figure 9). Figure 10. Periwinkle (Vinca minor) invades the forest edge via vegetative reproduction (indicated in black outline). Photo loca- tion: Deer Run Park, Mississauga. (In Figure 9, the first spike in mean waste disposal indicator of significance.). However, when there was no boundary demarca- tion, when a gate was placed in a fence, or when there was a grass strip with or without pathway, residents tended to ‘hide’ the waste from view further into the forest edge (accounting for the second spike in waste disposal farther from forest borders). Figure 3 is an example of waste disposal under a fenced bound- ary treatment, while Figure 11 is an example of the second dis- tribution pattern of waste disposal. Waste disposal occurred in association with composting bins concealed by forest vegetation. Figure 9. Mean indicators of significance for encroachment behaviors with respect to distance from forest borders Yard extension traces had the highest mean indicator of encroachment significance (i.e., highest total area encroach- ment per site), relative to other encroachment behaviors. To- tal area cover was highest at the forest border, descending sharply within the first approximately 12 m. The mean indica- tor of significance for encroachment in reaction to forest en- croachment mimicked the yard extension distribution pattern; however, they covered less of the forest floor, and were dis- tributed close to forest borders at approximately four meters. Invasive yard plants were concentrated in the first six meters of forest borders. Site observations revealed invasions entered for- est edges primarily through vegetative reproduction (Figure 10). However, residents planted some (Figure 6), and others arrived via dumping of viable invasive plant propagules in disposed waste. The distribution of forest recreation encroachment was not as closely aligned with forest borders, and peaked farther into forest edges. Unauthorized pathways made up a majority of encroachment sampled, originating at forest borders and ex- tending deep into the forest edge (Figure 5), while children’s forts and fire pits were located at a mean distance of 16 m. The sampling of waste disposal revealed a ‘two-humped’ pattern of distribution. Although waste disposal tended to de- crease in total area with distance from forest borders, they did so only gradually when compared with other behaviors. The ‘two humped’ pattern illustrated in Figure 9 is the result of dif- ferent waste disposal behaviors associated with different bound- ary treatments. For example, residents having a fenced boundary tended to dump waste over their fences close to the property line ©2010 International Society of Arboriculture Figure 11. Dumping pattern commonly associated with a fence with gate boundary treatment. Photo location: Forfar Park, Kitchener. DISCUSSION According to the factors that determine the significance of recre- ation-related human activity impacts on forest soils, vegetation, wildlife, and recreation experience, residential encroachment rep- resents a substantial source of degradation within municipal forest edges. Encroachment impacts are large in areal extent, intensive, and occur in highly valued ecosystems. According to boundary theory, this degraded condition of the edge suggests the health of the natural system may be at risk (Schonewald-Cox 1988). In terms of areal extent, most impacts occur within a mean distance of 18 m of forest borders and cover a mean of 25%
November 2010
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