Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 42(3): May 2016 icity, the EPA suggested that the default option is to assume that constituent actions are additive (U.S. EPA 1986). This approach was borrowed by sociologists and used in the modeling of the causes of the health gradients in urban neighbor- hoods (Evans and Kim 2010). The basic idea is that individuals may be exposed to more than one risk at a time. Some risks are chemical, some are social, and some are related to the physical envi- ronment. Multiple exposures may have a synergis- tic effect on the individual or they may cause less harm than expected (Sexton and Linder 2011). The HAUS, in the tradition of Richard Laza- rus (Lazarus 1997), measures stress by calling to mind specific irritants and benefits in the immedi- ate surroundings. In this study, respondents were not asked if they were stressed or to report on lit- ter, street noise, or police patrol, but instead, they were asked to reflect on the impact each item had on the quality of life on their block. Three pos- sible responses were provided—no impact, slight impact, and large impact. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) based on individual data for the HAUS scale was 0.79 (a value of 0.70 or higher is considered valid for a scale). The 14 items included: 1. Sense of community 2. Street drug sales 3. Friendly neighbors 4. Young people loitering 5. Street rubbish 6. Street noise 7. Good park sites nearby 8. Traffic 9. Graffiti 10. Police patrol 11. Unemployment 12. Street lighting 13. Absentee property ownership 14. Commercial establishments, such as bars, night clubs, or convenience stores Cohen et al. first reported on their PSS in 1983. In contrast to the HAUS, the PSS is based on an individual’s internal sense of effi- cacy. Like the HAUS, the PSS predicts psy- chological symptoms, physical symptoms, and health behaviors based on a multi-item scale. 151 Originally it was a 14-item scale. This proj- ect employed a well-validated ten-item ver- sion. Respondents were asked to rate the 10 items by checking off the descriptors: Never, Almost Never, Sometimes, Fairly Often, and Very Often (some items were reversed in the scale because they reflected positive responses). The larger the summed score, the more stress for the PSS scale. The inter- nal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) based on individual data for the PSS scale was 0.85 (a value of 0.70 or higher is considered valid for a scale). The questions for this scale included: 1. In the last month, how often have you been upset because of something that happened unexpectedly? 2. And in the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life? 3. In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and stressed? 4. In the last month, how often have you felt confident about your ability to han- dle your personal problems? (item was reversed) 5. In the last month, how often have you felt that things were going your way? (item was reversed) 6. In the last month, how often have you found that you could not cope with all the things that you had to do? 7. And the last month, how often have you been able to control irritations in your life? 8. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were on top of things? (item reversed) 9. In the last month, how often have you been angered because of things that were outside of your control? 10. And in the last month, how often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you could not overcome them? Since trees were counted by block, it was nec- essary to aggregate both the HAUS and the PSS from the individual to the block level (Agy- emang et al. 2007). A block is a neighborhood ©2016 International Society of Arboriculture
May 2016
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