Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 42(3): May 2016 this means the GIS land cover map actually under- estimates impervious surface because it is an aer- ial image that excludes impervious cover beneath tree canopies. The ‘Pace-to-Plant’ technique more accurately estimates impervious surface cover because it accounts for groundcover beneath veg- etation cover. This technique gives landscape pro- fessionals the tools to assess sites that have been specified for A. rubrum or to select A. rubrum for their own plantings. These professionals oſten warranty the trees they plant, and that landscape architects specify. Therefore, ensuring the success of the tree could reduce costs and improve business. The purpose of this technique is not to create definitive limitations for A. rubrum planting sites, but to make recommendations based on the prob- ability of the future condition of a tree planted at a given site. Another important component to con- sider is the amount and structure of vegetation sur- rounding the planting site. Vegetation structural complexity, particularly tree canopy cover, affects site temperature and subsequent pest abundance (Shrewsbury and Raupp 2000; Tooker and Hanks 2000; Dale and Frank 2014b; Frank 2014). Vegeta- tion complexity can also promote biological control by providing habitat refuges for natural enemies, although previous research has found that tempera- ture and impervious surface were more important in this system (Hanks and Denno 1993; Shrewsbury and Raupp 2000; Tooker and Hanks 2000; Frank and Shrewsbury 2004; Dale and Frank 2014b). There- fore, a site with more complex surrounding vegeta- tion could buffer the effects of impervious surface. The ‘Pace-to-Plant’ technique provides a tool that landscape professionals can use to quickly and easily assess a planting site and reduce the risk of future tree failure or decline. These data and simulations are specific to A. rubrum in the southeastern U.S. However, based on the negative effects of impervious surface on other tree species, it is likely that future research can adapt these thresholds for other tree species. Many problems with tree health originate at planting (Grabosky and Gilman 2004). One of the first steps of IPM in urban landscapes is correctly planting the appropriate tree in a given space to maximize its success and reduce future management costs (Raupp et al. 1985; Raupp et al. 1992; Grabosky and Gilman 2004). Using these impervious surface thresholds and the ‘Pace-to-Plant’ technique, land- 189 scape architects and other landscape professionals have the tools to plant the most common landscape tree in the eastern U.S. in more suitable locations. Acknowledgments. We thank Kristi Backe and Barbara Fair for assisting with study design and analysis, and for commenting on the manuscript. We thank the City of Raleigh Parks, Recreation, and Cultural Resources department for their permission to conduct this research on city-owned trees. The project described in this publica- tion was supported by a fellowship to AGD and Cooperative Agree- ment No. G11AC20471 and G13AC00405 from the United States Geological Survey. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Southeast Climate Science Center or the USGS. This manuscript is submit- ted for publication with the understanding that the United States Government is authorized to reproduce and distribute reprints for governmental purposes. This project was also supported by Agri- culture and Food Research Initiative Competitive Grant no. 2013- 02476 from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture to S.D.F. and E.Y. LITERATURE CITED Adkins, C., G. Armel, M. Chappell, J.C. Chong, S.D. Frank, A. Fulcher, F. Hale, W.E. Klingeman, K. Ivors, and A. Lebude. 2010. 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Development of an aesthetic injury level to decrease pesticide use against orangestriped oak- worm (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) in an urban pest management project. Journal of Economic Entomology 83:2044–2049. Coffelt, M.A., and P.B. Schultz. 1993. Quantification of an aesthetic injury level and threshold for an urban pest management pro- gram against orangestriped oakworm (Lepidoptera: Saturni- idae). Journal of Economic Entomology 86:1512–1515. Coffelt, M.A., P.B. Schultz, and D.D. Wolf. 1993. Impact of late- season orangestriped oakworm (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) de- foliation on oak growth and vigor. Environmental Entomology 22:1318–1324. Dale, A.G., and S.D. Frank. 2014a. The effects of urban warming of herbivore abundance and street tree condition. PLoS ONE 9(7):e102996. ©2016 International Society of Arboriculture
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