252 Stobbart and Johnston: A Survey of Urban Tree Management in New Zealand (2009) highlights an approach successfully used in the United States that has considerable potential to be used in New Zealand. It defines canopy goals based on various zoning categories, such as suburban residential, urban residential, and central business districts. The effectiveness of this approach could be improved by working in partnership with Regional Councils given the considerable overlap between their areas of responsibility, such as stormwater management, and the key contribution trees can make to a range of environmental policies. This process could also be used to establish the proportion of the tree cover that is publicly and privately owned, a measure that can be particularly useful when policies and plans are being developed. For LAs operating in predominantly urban areas this process will involve measuring the canopy cover for the entire district, including the surrounding areas that influence the quality of urban life, such as watersheds. LAs operating in rural areas may find it more practical to focus on measuring and establishing canopy goals for the towns and settlements in their district. The use of spe- cialist software like i-Tree should be considered. i-Tree was first developed in the U.S., and various i-Tree tools are available to download at no cost. The software provides a range of applica- tions that enables communities of all sizes to inventory, manage, and monitor the canopy cover in their district (Schwab 2009). The software suite also includes analytical tools to enable some of the more tangible environmental benefits of urban tree pop- ulations, such as improvements in air quality, to be quantified. Comprehensive Tree Management Strategies Studies highlight the dilemma many LA tree officers operating in difficult conditions and within severe financial constraints face in the UK (Britt and Johnston 2008). Limited resources could be used to carry out more surveys and systematic inspections of the LA’s trees, but in doing so even less money is available to carry out the maintenance work once it has been identified. Based on their research, Britt and Johnston (2008) stress that the only real solution to this dilemma is to develop a comprehensive tree management strategy that establishes clear priorities, targets, performance measures, and budgets. Although it is recognized that many of the LAs have some form of strategy in place, many of these can be improved. LAs should work toward developing comprehensive tree management strategies that cover the range of actions and interventions the LA will use to manage the pub- licly and privately owned trees in its district. The strategy should be based on agreed upon canopy goals and the results of surveys designed to establish the nature and extent of the urban forest in the LA’s district. It is important that other professions involved in urban management recognize the vital role trees and tree man- agement can play in achieving a range of environmental, eco- nomic, and social objectives. To help, the LA’s tree management strategy should be clearly linked to and support the LA’s District Plan and other relevant policy objectives and strategies. Periodic audits should also be considered to help ensure that each LA has a consistent and coherent approach to managing a range of policy areas. A community involvement strategy setting out the range of measures the LA will use to manage the trees in its district in partnership with the community and with organizations from the public, private, and voluntary sectors should be incorporated into the tree strategy. Studies (Johnston and Shimada 2004; Britt and Johnston 2008) highlight the importance of developing a range ©2012 International Society of Arboriculture of activities that balance the three key elements of community involvement: education, consultation, and practical participation. Changing Perceptions A major threat to developing sustainable and effective LA tree management programs is the perception commonly held by some elected officials and members of the community that al- though trees offer some aesthetic benefits, they are largely an expendable commodity. The challenge facing LAs is to move to a position where trees are seen as a sound and even a pre- ferred investment in the community’s future (Britt and Johnston 2008; Schwab 2009). Public support for LA tree management is fundamental to its success. Although support can be in the form of resources, such as time and money, arguably the most signif- icant form of support for a LA’s tree program is the influence the public is able to exert on elected officials and their spend- ing priorities, a process that Clark et al. (1997) aptly describe as “people who value trees, elect officials who value trees.” Although the development of a comprehensive tree manage- ment strategy is a fundamental part of the reorientation process, a number of techniques and tools, such as the use of i-Tree software, are available to enable LAs to quantify some of the more tangible benefits of the trees in their district. The infor- mation these techniques can provide can be a powerful tool in generating public support and securing funding for a LA’s tree program (Schwab 2009; Rogers 2010; Hansford et al. 2011). Sources of Funding Studies in the U.S. (Schwab 2009) and the UK (Britt and John- ston 2008) highlight the potential for LAs to use innovative ap- proaches to help stabilize funding levels for their tree programs and reduce the LA’s dependency on public funding. Pursuing external sources of funding can also help when LA officers are trying to convince their LA to increase the level of funding for their tree program (Britt and Johnston 2008). External funding, such as grants, donations, and sponsorships are typically avail- able from a range of organizations in the public, private, and voluntary sector. LAs should work toward incorporating external funding targets and plans into their tree management strategy. Identifying the various funding options is something that can usefully be done by a central body. This could be included in the remit of a national urban forestry unit, should one be established. CONCLUSION There are many encouraging aspects of the research that give cause for optimism. However, there are concerns that the stra- tegic importance of trees in the urban environment is not al- ways being recognized by the public and members of the lo- cal authority. Officers involved in LA tree management are frequently operating under difficult conditions and often within severe financial constraints, which is limiting their abil- ity to develop a planned, systematic, and integrated approach. With a relatively small increase in funding, substantial prog- ress could be achieved to facilitate the development of a truly planned and proactive approach to LA tree management. In the long term, LA tree programs have a vital role to play in creating sustainable communities and contributing to the delivery of a range of environmental, economic, and social objectives and
November 2012
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