228 Gathright et al.: Tree-Assisted Therapy Table 6. Spearman correlation coefficients between affinity for forests and perceptions of programs. Group KMTT KMTC KFTT KFTC HMTT HMTC HFTT HFTC 0.8732 0.5907 0.6778 0.6716 0.6183 0.6039 0.8732 0.7902 0.8721 0.9217 0.7280 0.8591 0.6577 0.6333 0.8721 0.8829 0.6838 0.3948 0.5162 0.6838 0.4143 Italic bold type is 1% significant. Italic type is 5% significant. TC tree-climbing; acomp accomplishment. For perceptions of the program, gender was an important ex- planatory factor for satisfaction with the program and percep- tions about whether tree-climbing was stressful, whether it was relaxing, and whether it induced a sense of accomplishment. Gender helped explain changes in each of the perceptions and beliefs about forests. Gender was important for explaining all POMS changes except confusion. CONCLUSION We have tested the hypothesis that greater therapeutic and soci- etal benefits from a community program of TRTC can be achieved by complementing tree-climbing activities with pur- pose-specific therapeutic, motivational, and educational ele- ments. We have presented strong evidence in favor of this hy- pothesis. In particular, we have found that the participants of a tree-climbing program that was enhanced with these elements (called tree-assisted therapy) experienced greater improvement in emotional well-being and greater increase in appreciation and sympathy for the environment than did a control group in a tree-climbing program without these elements. Our comparison of tree-assisted therapy with the control pro- gram found greater reductions in participant tension, anxiety, depression, and anger and a greater increase in participant vital- ity. Participants in the tree-assisted therapy program also re- ported greater improvement in environmentally conscious atti- tudes. In addition, we found that the tree-assisted therapy pro- gram provided a more enjoyable and relaxing tree-climbing experience for participants. We have also established that participants’ affinity for trees is an important explanatory variable for the outcomes of a tree- climbing program. The participants for this experiment were not self-selected, making it possible to test whether variation in af- finity for trees helps explain participants’ perceptions of tree- climbing programs and the extent of benefits derived from the programs. We find that those participants who have a greater affinity for trees will have a more favorable impression of tree- climbing programs, a greater desire to help forests and trees, and willingness to try other new forest activities. It is possible that the tree-assisted therapy program produces better outcomes in part because some of the extra elements included were designed to increase affinity for trees. The results presented here provide insight for designing com- munity tree-climbing programs. This research also establishes the merits of including purpose-specific therapeutic, educational, and motivational elements in such programs. ©2008 International Society of Arboriculture To our knowledge, this is the first study of the therapeutic and societal benefits of tree-climbing programs. The study builds on previous studies on the benefits of tree-climbing and on related work in forest therapy. Our results indicate that positive health and well-being ben- efits from tree-climbing programs are achieved beyond those of simply being in a forest. This is because our evaluations of participants’ perceptions and mood states before and after the program were conducted in the forest where the climbing took place. Our results, then, indicate that tree-climbing activities in forests would increase the positive effects of forest therapy and suggest that forest therapy and tree-climbing therapy may be complementary. Conversely, by focusing on trees rather than on the whole forest, tree-climbing therapy is possible not only in forests, but in parks and other urban greenspaces. It provides an easily acces- sible activity that increases participants’ appreciation of trees and their desire to help trees and forests. The goal of this article is not to finalize a particular tree- climbing program, but to pioneer the investigation of how to design tree-climbing programs to best serve specific needs and purposes. In particular, the rehabilitative potential of tree- climbing activities for persons with disabilities or other special needs would be a valuable avenue for future research. LITERATURE CITED Bodin, M., and T. Hartig. 2003. Does the outdoor environment matter for psychological restoration gained through running? Psychology of Sport and Exercise 4:141–153. Chang, C.Y., W.E. Hammitt, P. Chen, L. Machnick, and W. Su. 2007. Psychophysiological responses and restorative values of natural en- vironments in Taiwan. Landscape and Urban Planning 85:79–84. Coss, R.G., and M. Moore. 2002. Precocious knowledge of trees as antipredator refuge in preschool children: An examination of aesthet- ics, attributive judgments, and relic sexual dinichism. Ecological Psy- chology 14:181–222. Gathright, J., Y. Yamada, and M. Morita. 2006. Comparison of the physiological and psychological benefits of tree and tower climbing. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 5:141–149. ———. 2007. Recreational tree climbing programs in a rural Japanese community forest: Social impacts and fun factors. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 6:169–179. Hartig, T., G.W. Evans, L.D. Jamer, D.S. Davis, and T. Garling. 2003. Tracking restoration in natural and urban field settings. Journal of Environmental Psychology 23:109–123. –0.6294 –0.4516 –0.4842 0.5021 0.4429 0.4073 0.4042 –0.6294 0.7515 0.5021 0.4282 0.4073 –0.5662 –0.4412 0.6455 Visit forests Try act. forests TC fun TC scary TC pleasant TC satisfaction TC relax TC stress TC acomp 0.7515 –0.5662 0.6455 0.4520
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