Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 33(3): May 2007 191 tigation indicate are more stable and durable under outdoor weather conditions accounting for the longer degree of pro- tection recorded (Sutherland and Walters 2002). In all cases in which a significant degree of protection was conferred, a concomitant lower internal leaf Na and Cl con- tent was also recorded. Such a response indicates that the effective film-forming polymers used in this study formed a physical barrier/protective coating across the leaf surface that prevented direct entry of Na and Cl ions into the leaf tissue. Natural precipitation during the experimental period may then have washed off and/or diluted Na and Cl ions to a concentration nonharmful to foliar tissue. Prevention of Na and Cl ions into leaf tissue would prove an important factor in reducing salt damage (delayed budbreak, reduced leaf size, leaf yellowing, and necrosis) because salt injury has been correlated with the accumulation of Na and Cl ions in plant tissue (Sucoff et al. 1976). Irrespective of species, there was no marked difference in the level of protection conferred when Bond and Newman Crop Spray 11E™were applied at 1% and 2%. Such knowl- edge may prove useful to those involved in urban tree care in which the cost:benefit ratio involved with deicing salt pro- tection needs to be considered. In conclusion, results indicate that application of a suitable film-forming polymer can provide a significant degree of protection of up to 3 months against salt spray injury. Results also indicate that when applied, no problems associated with phytotoxicity and rapid degradation on the leaf surface exist. Improved hardiness against salt damage by the application of film-forming polymers ensures greater survival and enhanced aesthetics of trees located within urban landscapes during the winter months, in turn reducing potential labor and replace- ment costs. Importantly, film-forming polymers are commer- cially available, inexpensive, and, according to United King- dom pesticide regulations, are classified as biologically inert meaning their toxicity to humans is negligible (Anonymous 2006b). Acknowledgment. The authors are grate- ful for funding from the TREE Fund (John Z. Duling). Clark, A.J., W. Landolt, J. Bucher, and R.J. Strasser. 1998. The response of Fagus sylvatica to elevated CO2 and ozone probed by the JIP-test based on the chlorophyll fluorescence rise: OJIP, pp. 283–286. In Responses of Plant Metabolism to Air Pollution and Global Change. De Kok, J.L., and Stulen, I., Eds. Leiden, The Netherlands, Brackhuys Publishers, Leiden. ———. 2000. Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) response to ozone exposure assessed with a chlorophyll a fluorescence per- formance index. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Es- sex: 1987) 109:501–507. Constantini, A., and A.E. Rich. 1973. Comparison of salt injury to four species of coniferous tree seedlings when salt was applied to the potting medium and to the needles with and without an antitranspirants. Phytopathology 63: 200. Dobson, M.C. 1991. De-icing salt damage to trees and shrubs. Forestry Commission Bulletin 101. Emmons, A., A. Wood, and E. Sucoff. 1976. Antidesiccant sprays and damage from deicing salts. Minnesota Forestry Research Note 258. Fuller, M.P., F. Hamed, M. Wisniewski, and D.M. Glenn. 2003. Protection of plants from frost using hydrophobic particle film and acrylic polymer. Annals of Applied Bi- ology 143:93–97. Gibbs, J.N., and C.A. Palmer. 1994. A survey of damage to roadside trees in London caused by the application of de-icing salt during the 1990/91 winter. Journal of Ar- boriculture 18:321–343. Lichtenthaler, H.K., and A.R. Wellburn. 1983. Determina- tions of total carotenoids and chlorophylls a and b of leaf extracts in different solvents. Biochemical Society Trans- actions 11:591–593. Percival, G.C., and S. Barnes. 2005. The influence of calcium fertilisation on the freezing and salinity tolerance of two urban tree species. Journal of Arboriculture 31:10–21. Percival, G.C., and G.A. Fraser. 2001. Measurement of the salinity and freezing tolerance of Crataegus genotypes using chlorophyll fluorescence. Journal of Arboriculture 27:233–245. Percival, G.C., G.A. Fraser, and G. Oxenham. 2003. Foliar salt tolerance of Acer genotypes using chlorophyll fluo- rescence. Journal of Arboriculture 29:61–66. Ryan, J. 2005. Salt damage to trees. Essential ARB. 16: 11–12. LITERATURE CITED Anonymous. 2006a. De’Sangosse Agrochemical Product Manual. De’Sangosse Ltd., Swaffham Bulbeck, Cam- bridge, U.K. ———. 2006b. The U.K. Pesticide Guide. British Crop Pro- tection Council. Oxford, Cabi Publishing. Sauer, G. 1980. Experiments on protecting aerial parts of woody plants against direct effect of de-icing salt. Zeitschrift fu ¨r Vegetation stechnik im Landschafts—und Sportsättenbau. 3:86–91. Sucoff, E., S.G. Hong, and A. Wood. 1976. NaCl and twig dieback along highways and cold hardiness of highway versus garden twigs. Canadian Journal of Botany 54: 2268–2274. ©2007 International Society of Arboriculture
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