126 Silvera Seamans: Grassroots Citizen Science in Urban Spontaneous Vegetation ily on digital photography (some of it smartphone- based) and geolocation-enabled social media (i.e., Instagram) and citizen science apps (i.e., iNatural- ist). These technologies are relatively low-cost and easy to use. From a traditionalist science perspec- tive, the aggregation of spatial data about plant species and communities is a major contribution of these collegial citizen-science projects. Not only does the iNaturalist app provide geolocation information, it is also a platform for crowdsourc- ing biotic observations. Common Studio has three active projects on the platform, and each project is set to open membership and submission. These open-access settings provide opportunities to learn, to gain expertise, and to develop a community of practice that is initially based on observation but could evolve into in situ resource management (Krasny and Tidball 2009). The open-access settings also mean that professional scientists can mine the data for basic and applied ecology research. Ins- tagram is also used to collect and to analyze data. Photographs of actual spontaneous plants are data, as are other information captured in and through the act of taking the image, such as geographic location, habitat, and growth pattern. One type of analysis that is conducted via Instagram is index- ing. Using Instagram also enables crowdsourcing and communication of environmental information. Time-lapse digital photography has been used to collect and analyze plant phenological data (Crim- mins and Crimmins 2008). One of the cofounders of NESL used the photo time series (not time-lapsed) method to study the vegetative life cycle of several lots in Bushwick, Brooklyn. This photographic method was the basis for a typology of “feral landscapes.” The uses of these particular methods highlight that the cases presented in this paper are engaged in a hybrid form of environmental monitoring; plant monitoring and habitat tracking are occurring. Finally, there are outstanding questions about grassroots weedy ecology projects. First, the pre- dominant focus is on plants, and while micro- habitats are being classified, there is little to no consideration of the fungi, fauna, and microor- ganisms that inhabit spaces of ‘weeds.’ Second, the valorization of these spaces has the potential to obfuscate the root causes of the existence of these spaces. Collegial investigators should be mindful that even an ecological vision with its innumer- ©2018 International Society of Arboriculture ably quantified ecological benefits could also pro- duce disservices. Third, and more philosophically, is there a “nature ethic” (Proctor 1996) that could positively incorporate urban spontaneous vegeta- tion? ‘Weeds’ don’t have a place in either wilder- ness or garden ethics. Managing for areas of early successional forest landscapes (Swanson et al. 2010) and preserving spontaneous successional stages to explore the broad scope of ecological and cultural services might yield new ways of framing and appreciating this misunderstood urban flora. Acknowledgments. Thank you to the artists and designers who participated in this research study. I appreciate your willingness to share your work on, and passion for, urban spontaneous vegeta- tion, also known as ‘weeds.’ Also, thank you to the two anonymous reviewers whose feedback resulted in a deeper consideration of the linguistic dimensions of this urban flora and a more robust discus- sion of the impacts of the projects included in this research. LITERATURE CITED Aronson, M.F.J., F.A. La Sorte, C.H. Nilon, M. Katti, M.A. Goddard, C.A. Lepczyk, and P.S. Warren, et al. 2014. A global analysis of the impacts of urbanization on bird and plant diversity reveals key anthropogenic drivers. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 281(1780). Accessed 30 May 2017. Burkholder, S. 2012. The new ecology of vacancy: Rethinking land use in shrinking cities. Sustainability 4:1154–1172. Caissie, L.T., and E.A. Halpenny. 2003. Volunteering for nature: Motivations for participating in a biodiversity conservation vol- unteer program. World Leisure Journal 45(2):38–50. Cervelli, E.W., J.T. Lundholm, and X. Du. 2013. Urban spontaneous vegetation and habitat heterogeneity in Xi’an, China. Landscape and Urban Planning 120:25–33. Crimmins, M.A., and T.M. Crimmins. 2008. Monitoring plant phe- nology using digital repeat photography. Environmental Man- agement 41(6):949–958. Del Tredici, P. 2010a. Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, U.S. 374 pp. Del Tredici, P. 2010b. Spontaneous urban vegetation: Reflections of change in a globalized world. Nature and Culture 5(3):299–315. Del Tredici, P. 2014. The flora of the future: Celebrating the botani- cal diversity of cities. Places Journal. Accessed 30 May 2017. Dickinson J.L., and R. Bonney (Eds.). 2012. Citizen Science: Public Participation in Environmental Research. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, U.S. 304 pp. Dickinson, J.L., B. Zuckerberg, and D.N. Bonter. 2010. Citizen sci- ence as an ecological research tool: Challenges and benefits. An- nual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 41:149–172. Evans, C., E. Abrams, R. Reitsma, K. Roux, L. Salmonsen, and P.P. Marra. 2005. The neighborhood nestwatch program: Partici- pant outcomes of a citizen-science ecological research project. Conservation Biology 19(3):589–594. Grimm, N.B., J.M. Grove, S.T.A. Pickett, and C.L. Redman. 2000. Integrated approaches to long-term studies of urban ecological
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