Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 34(6): November 2008 export results to produce their own customized report. In addi- tion to the new C++ software, the UFORE model continues to be developed with new updates planned over the next several years, including integration with spatial tree cover maps. The Urban Forest Effect model can be used to provide nec- essary information on the urban forest resource and its ecosys- tem services to improve urban forest management and bolster urban forestry programs. As an example, based in part on UFORE results, Conectiv Electric Utility negotiated to have $1 million of an air pollution fine donated to the New Jersey Tree Foundation (a nonprofit organization working with the Commu- nity Forestry Program) for a massive Urban Airshed Reforesta- tion project in the Camden, New Jersey, area (New Jersey De- partment of Environmental Protection 2002; M. D’Errico, New Jersey Parks and Community Forestry, pers. comm., 2002). In Oakville, Ontario, the town is using UFORE results to help better integrate forestry with other town departments and create new programs and policies to sustain tree cover and environ- mental quality for future generations (McNeil and Vava 2006). The UFORE model was developed to statistically assess urban forest structure and subsequently estimate various functions and values based on these structural data and local environmental data. The structural data are critical to estimating functions, but are also essential to improve urban forest planning. Because the forest structure determines the functions derived from the urban forest, decisions that affect urban forest structure influence the current and future forest functions. Large-scale management de- cisions related to tree removal, species selection, tree location, tree health, and tree planting should incorporate local urban for- est data and consider desired future forest functions. CONCLUSION The various sampling approaches provided through the UFORE model offer a relatively straightforward means to effectively assess urban forest structure and subsequently urban forest eco- system functions and values. Although the model has various limitations, results are based on local field data and currently provide one of the most accurate means to assess urban forest structure and ecosystem functions. Structural data can be moni- tored to assess urban forest change and help develop and assess long-term management plans to meet the needs of an urban society and improve environmental quality and human health. Acknowledgments. Data collection in Baltimore, funded by the USDA Forest Service, is part of the National Science Foundation’s Long-Term Ecosystem Research project. Data from cities in New Jersey were col- lected and analyzed in cooperation with Mike D’Errico and the State of New Jersey, Department of Environmental Protection and Energy, Di- vision of Parks and Forestry; Casper data collection was in cooperation with Mark Hughes of the Wyoming State Forestry Division and Jim Gerhart of the City of Casper Parks Division; Minneapolis data collec- tion was by Davey Resource Group; San Francisco data collection was by Alexis Harte and the City of San Francisco; Washington DC data collection was by Casey Trees Endowment Fund and the National Park Service; and Atlanta, GA; Boston, MA; New York, NY; and Philadel- phia, PA data were collected by ACRT, Inc. LITERATURE CITED Baldocchi, D. 1988. A multi-layer model for estimating sulfur dioxide deposition to a deciduous oak forest canopy. Atmospheric Environ- ment 22:869–884. Baldocchi, D.D., B.B. Hicks, and P. Camara. 1987. 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U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 877 pp. Buckelew Cumming, A., D.J. Nowak, D.B. Twardus, R. Hoehn, M. Mielke, and R. Rideout. 2007. Urban Forests of Wisconsin 2002: Pilot Monitoring Project 2002. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry Report, NA-FR-05-07. 33 pp. www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/12685 (accessed 10/1/08). Cairns, M.A., S. Brown, E.H. Helmer, and G.A. Baumgardner. 1997. Root biomass allocation in the world’s upland forests. Oecologia 111:1–11. The Capital District Regional Planning Commission. 2008. Consumer and Producer Price Indices. www.cdrpc.org/CPI_PPI.html (accessed 6/5/08). Chow, P., and G.L. Rolfe. 1989. Carbon and hydrogen contents of short-rotation biomass of five hardwood species. Wood and Fiber Science 21:30–36. Clark, D.E. 1979. Sunset New Western Garden Book. Lane Publ. Co., Menlo Park, CA. 512 pp. Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers. 1992. Guide for Plant Ap- praisal. International Society of Arboriculture, Savoy, IL. 103 pp. Derrenbacher, W.E. 1969. Plants and Landscape: An Analysis of Orna- mental Planting in Four Berkeley Neighborhoods. Master’s Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, CA. 231 pp. deVries, R.E. 1987. A Preliminary Investigation of the Growth and Longevity of Trees in Central Park. M.S. Thesis, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ. 95 pp. Dorney, J.R., G.R. Guntenspergen, J.R. Keough, and F. Stearns. 1984. Composition and structure of an urban woody plant community. Ur- ban Ecology 8:69–90. Duncan, J.S. Jr. 1973. Landscape taste as a symbol of group identity. Geographical Review 63:334–355. Dwyer, J.F., E.G. McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992. Assessing the benefits and costs of the urban forest. Journal of Arboriculture 18:227–234. Energy Information Administration. 2003a. Sales Revenue Data. 27 Jan 2003. www.eia.doe.gov/electricity/page/sales_revenue.xls (accessed 4/3/03). ———. 2003b. Energy Markets and End Use. www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/ states/_states.html (accessed 4/3/03). ———. 2003c. Natural Gas Monthly. 16 Apr 2003. www.eia.doe.gov/ pub/oil_gas/natural_gas/data_publications/natural_gas_monthly/ current/pdf/table_15.pdf (accessed 4/3/03). ———. 2003d. Petroleum Marketing Monthly. Feb 2003. www.eia. doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/petroleum/data_publications/petroleum_ marketing_monthly/current/pdf/pmmtab18.pdf (accessed 4/3/03). ———. 2003e. Residential Energy Consumption Survey. 27 Feb 2001. www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/consumptionbriefs/recs/heating_oil/ region_oil.html (accessed 4/3/03). ———. 2003f. Residential Energy Consumption Survey. 27 Feb 2001. http://eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs/glossary.html (accessed 4/3/03). ©2008 International Society of Arboriculture
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